¹ See Property and Restitution: A Moral Responsibility of History, (at http://www.audionet.com/events/swc/property/) with national reports concerning the following countries: Argentina, Jorge Camarasa, author, Los Nazis en la Argentina, Buenos Aires; France, Brigitte Vital-Durand, author, Domaine Privé, Paris; Norway, Berit Reisel, psychologist, Norwegian Governmental Commission on Restitution, Oslo; Portugal, Antonio Louca, historian, New University of Lisbon; Spain, Jose-Maria Irujo, El Pais, Madrid; Sweden, Paul Levine, Swedish National commission on Jewish Assets, Uppsala; Switzerland, Curt Gasteyger, Graduate Institute of International Studies, Lausanne; Turkey, Cemil Koçak, author, Turkish German Relations, Ankara; Moderator: Dr. Shimon Samuels, Simon Wiesenthal Center, Paris Property and; Restitution: A Moral Responsibility of History http://www.audionet.com/events/swc/property. in pursuance of communist reforms in the former Soviet Union and its former satellite countries.² Google Scholar

² See for example Aronovitz & Wyrzykowski, The Polish Draft Law on Reprivatisation: some reflections on Domestic and International Law, Revue Suisse de droit international et de droit européen, 2, 1991, p. 223.Google Scholar

³ Article 33 Spanish Constitution (at: http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/law/sp00004_.html): (1) The right to private property and inheritance is recognized; (2) The social function of these rights shall determine the limits of their content in accordance with the law; (3) No one may be deprived of his property and rights except for justified cause of public utility or social interest after proper indemnification in accordance with the provisions of law.Google Scholar

⁴ One of the consequences of the right to own private property not being a fundamental right is that in case of breach, the victims cannot avail themselves of certain remedies provided by Spanish Law for the reparation of violations of fundamental human rights. Such is the case, for example, of Law n° 62/1978 for the Protection of Fundadental Rights, which prescribes a special and accelerated procedure for attacking these types of violations. Since, as stated, private patrimonial rights are not fundamental rights, the use of this procedure is not possible in case of breach, unless the victim can associate the violation of his property rights to the violation of a fundamental right (for example, if the confiscation of a publication was carried out on discriminatory grounds, or/and in violation of the freedom of expression).Google Scholar

⁵ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, at: http://www.immi.se/rights.htm.Google Scholar

⁶ According to the literature, despite its lack of legal force, this Declaration has inspired national legislators and it was invoked by private claimants in States where legislation was not sufficient. See Robertson, The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights, 27 British Yearbook of International Law, 1950, 145; Hudson, Charter Provisions on Human Rights in American Law, 44 American Journal of International Law, 1959, 547; Schreuner, The Impact of International Institutions on the Protection of Human Rights in Domestic Courts, 4 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, 1974, 78; Schwelb, The Influence of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on International and National Law, 53 American Society of International Law (proc.), 1959-60, 217 s; in case-law: Singh and others v. The State of Orissa, Indian Court of Orissa, 1957, 29 International Law Reports, p. 425 s; Sei Fujii v. State, 217 Pacific Reporter 2nd series, 1950, p. 481.Google Scholar

⁷ Dinstein, Supranational Law (Hebrew), Tel-Aviv, 1979, 182.Google Scholar

⁸ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 16 December 1966; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 16 December 1966. The texts of these Covenants can be consulted on the site: http://www.un.org/plweb-cgi/iopcode3.pl) after subscription to the UN Treaty Database: http://www.un.org/Depts/Treaty/enter.htm.Google Scholar

⁹ An exception to this omission is Article 15.1 (c) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which protects intellectual property rights by stating that: “The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone … to benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.”Google Scholar

¹⁰ The text appears at http://www.coe.fr/eng/legaltxt/5e.htm.Google Scholar

¹¹ See the preparatory materials in: Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1975. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LEVEL: monograph, Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights: vol. 2 /; Council of Europe, xvii, 311 p. - The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff publ., 1975. ISBN 00 247 1783 3. LANGUAGE: ENG, FRE. INDEX WORDS: * exhaustion of domestic remedies * individual complaints * right to marry * social security * torture * discrimination * Council of Europe * regional instruments. NOTE (GENERAL): Contents: Consultative Assembly, Second session of the Committee of Ministers, Standing Committee of the Assembly 10 August - 18 November 1949 ECHR; 47. Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1976. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LEVEL: monograph Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights : vol. 39 / ; Council of Europe, vxii, 339 p. - The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff publ., 1976. ISBN 00 247 1819 8. LANGUAGE: ENG, FRE. INDEX WORDS: * effective remedy * regional instruments. NOTE (GENERAL): Contents: Committee of experts 2 February - 10 March 1950. ECHR; 48. Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1977. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LEVEL: monograph Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights : vol. 4 / ; Council of Europe, 301 p. - The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff publ., 1977. ISBN 90 247 1969 0. LANGUAGE: ENG, FRE. INDEX WORDS: * right to privacy * liberty of person * torture * equality before the law * slavery * trade union rights * freedom of expression * freedom of conscience * freedom of religion * right to marry * regional instruments. NOTE (GENERAL): Contents: Committee of Experts: Committee of Ministers: Conference of Senior Officials 30 March - June 1950. ECHR; 49. Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1979. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LEVEL: monograph Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights : vol. 5 / ; Council of Europe, xix, 356 p. - The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff publ., 1979. ISBN 90 247 1970 4. LANGUAGE: ENG, FRE INDEX WORDS: * aliens * exhaustion of domestic remedies * discrimination * friendly settlement * right to education * right to public trial * right to privacy * right to education * rights of the child * regional instruments * children. NOTE (GENERAL): Contents: Legal Committee, Ad hoc joint Committee; Committee of Ministers, Consultative Assembly 23 June - 28 August ECHR; 50. Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1985. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LEVEL: monograph Collected edition of the “Travaux Preparatoires” of the European Convention on Human Rights : vol. 7 / ; Council of Europe, xxxi, 347 p. - Dordrecht : Martinus Nijhoff publ., 1985. ISBN 90 247 2892 4. LANGUAGE: ENG, FRE. INDEX WORDS: * free and periodic * freedom of assembly * right to education * freedom of expression * European Court of Human Rights * minority groups * national minorities * slavery * torture * right to property * right to marry. NOTE (GENERAL): Contents: Standing Committee of the Consultative Assembly: Consultative Assembly: Committee of Experts: Committee of Ministers: Legal Committee (3 November 1950 - 15 May 1951) …Google Scholar

¹² An electronic version of this article can be found at: http://www.coe.fr/eng/legaltxt/9e.htm.Google Scholar

¹³ Sermet, La Convention européenne des Droits de l'Homme et le droit de propriété, Strasbourg, 1991, 11; Condorelli, Premier Protocole Additionnel, in La Convention européenne des droits de l'Homme (dir. Pettiti, Decaux and Imbert), Paris, 1995, 976.Google Scholar

¹⁴ In one case in 1976, the European Commission rejected Britain's argument that the rights protected by Article of the 1 First Protocol to the ECHR appertained only to movable property (Appl. N° 7456/76, in Decisions and Reports 13, 3).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Sermet [supra note 13], 17 s: “Plusieurs raisons militent, à notre sens, pour inclure les brevets dans les biens garantis, ainsi que la propriété intellectuelle en général (droits d'auteurs, copyrights, etc.). Tout d'abord, il ne serait pas absurde de considérer le brevet comme un élément indissociable de l'activité économique. Ensuite, il ressort clairement que le brevet pourrait ětre qualifié de bien car il possède les caractéristiques d'usage (exclusivité) et de libre disposition (transférabilité): attributs de la propriété”. See the Internet sites of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV): _ LIENHYPERTEXTE http://www.upov.int/eng/index.htm_http://www.upov.int/eng/index.htm_andofthe World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO): http://www.wipo.org.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Frowein, The Protection of Property, in the European System for the Protection of Human Rights (ed. by Macdonald, Matscher & Petzhold), Dordrecht; Boston [etc.] : M. Nijhoff, 1993, 515; Peukert, Protection of Ownership under Article 1 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, 2 Human Rights Law Journal, 1981, 41, 51.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Tre Traktörer Case, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A n° 102.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ferdin Case, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A n° 19, 15.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Case of Van Marie and others, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A n° 101, 13 and 27; Sermet [supra note 13], 15.Google Scholar

²⁰ Application n° 5849/72, 17 Yearbook of the European Convention of Human Rights, 1967, 516: “The duty to contribute to a security scheme may, in certain circumstances, give raise to a property right”.Google Scholar

²¹ In the case of Gaygusuz v. Austria, the applicant, a Turkish national, applied for an advance on his pension in the form of emergency assistance in accordance with the Unemployment Insurance Act, but his application was refused because of his nationality. The Court considered that the right to emergency assistance - insofar as provided for in the applicable legislation - was a pecuniary right for the purposes of Article 1 of the First Protocol to the ECHR (Bulletin of Legal Developments, Issue n° 19/20, 14.10.1996, 236 s).Google Scholar

²² Frowein [Supra note 16], 516; Condorelli [Supra note 13], 978.Google Scholar

²³ Gasus Dosier -und Fördertechnik GmbH v. Netherlands (Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A n° 306-B).Google Scholar

²⁴ Stan Greem Refineries and Stratis Andreadis v. Greece, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A n° 301-B. Here the Court went on to hold that a debt owed to the applicant constituted a possession within the meaning of Article 1 of the First Protocol to the ECHR and that the enactment of legislation rendering it impossible for the applicant to obtain satisfaction for the debt constituted an interference with his possession.Google Scholar

²⁵ See Condorelli [Supra note 13], 976 s notes 3-5.Google Scholar

²⁶ See Application n° 7742/76, 21 Yearbook of the European Convention of Human Rights, 1978, 510.Google Scholar

²⁷ Aronovitz, The Procedural Status of Individuals in Diplomatic Protection and in the European Convention of Human Rights, 28 Comparative Law Review (The Institute of Comparative Law in Japan), N° 4, 1995, 21.Google Scholar

²⁸ Seidl-Hohenveldern, Extraterritorial Effects of Confiscations and Expropriations, 49 Michigan Law Review, 1950-1, 859; Draft Convention on the protection of foreign Property (prepared by the OECD), 2 International Legal Materials, 1962, 248; García-Amador, Fourth Report on international responsibility (A/CN.4/119), 1959, 2 International Law Commission Yearbook, 11.Google Scholar

²⁹ Brandon, Legal Deterrents and Incentives to Private Foreign Investment, 43 Grotius Transactions, 1957, 43.Google Scholar

³⁰ See Frowein [supra note 16], 521.Google Scholar

³¹ Sporrong and Lönnroth case, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights Series A n° 52, 24.Google Scholar

³² Application 11763/85 Banér v. Sweden (not published).Google Scholar

³³ Hentrich case, European Human Rights Reports, vol. 18 November-December 1994, parts. 5 & 6, 440 (A/296-A).Google Scholar

³⁴ Ibid., 468.Google Scholar

³⁵ Papamichalopoulus and others case, Publications of the European Court of Human Rights, Series A Vol. 260, 1993.Google Scholar

³⁶ Condorelli [supra note 13], 983.Google Scholar

³⁷ Sermet [supra note 13], 31.Google Scholar