¹ Swadling, Paula, Plumes from Paradise (Port Moresby: Papua New Guinea National Museum, 1996).Google Scholar

² See, for example, Sillitoe, Paul, Social Change in Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

³ See, for example, Collins, Randall, “An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan,” American Sociological Review 62 (1997): CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Arrighi, Giovanni, Hamashita, Takeshi, and Selden, Mark, The Resurgence of East Asia: 500, 150 and 50 Year Perspectives (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003)Google Scholar; Berger, Mark T., The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization (Abington: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; van der Veer, Peter, The Modern Spirit of Asia: The Spiritual and the Secular in China and India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014)Google Scholar; Biswas, Rajiv, Asian Megatrends (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ McKinsey Global Institute, Asia’s Future Is Now, 2019, 3.

⁵ Compare with White, Oscar, Parliament of Thousands Tribes (Indianapolis, IN: The Bobbs-Merrill, 1965)Google Scholar; Nelson, Hank, Taim Bilong Masta (Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Comission, 1982)Google Scholar; Premdas, Ralph, “Ethnicity and Nation-Building: Papua New Guinea,” in Ethnicity and Nation-Building, ed. Howard, Michael, (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1989), .Google Scholar

⁶ James May, Ronald, State and Society in Papua New Guinea: The First Twenty-Five Years (Cambera: Australian National University, 2004).Google Scholar

⁷ Errington, Frederick and Gewertz, Deborah, “The Individuation of Tradition in a Papua New Guinean Modernity,” American Anthropologist 98 (1996): .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Gewertz, Deborah and Errington, Frederick, “Sleights of Hand and the Construction of Desire in a Papua New Guinea Modernity,” Contemporary Pacific 10 (1998): Google Scholar; Gewertz, Deborah and Errington, Frederick, Emerging Class in Papua New Guinea: The Telling of Difference (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).Google Scholar

⁹ Hirsch, Eric, “When Was Modernity in Melanesia?” Social Anthropology 9 (2001): CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robbins, Joel and Wardlow, Holly, eds., The Making of Global and Local Modernities in Melanesia: Humiliation, Transformation and the Nature of Cultural Change (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, 2005)Google Scholar. Compare with Giddens, Anthony, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Cf. Verhaar, John W. M., ed., Melanesian Pidgin and Tok Pisin (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1990): vii–xiii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹ Connell, John, Papua New Guinea: The Struggle for Development (London: Routledge, 1997), .Google Scholar

¹² Theo Aerts, Traditional Religion in Melanesia (Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea, 1998), 1.

¹³ Papua New Guinea, National Report (Port Moresby: National Statistical Office, 2015), .Google Scholar

¹⁴ Summerhayes, Glenn et al., “Human Adaptation and Plant Use in Highland New Guinea 49,000 to 44,000 Years Ago,” Science 330 (2010): 78–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵ Kirch, Patrick, On the Road of Winds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Plunkett Murray, John, Papua or British New Guinea (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912)Google Scholar; Waiko, John, A Short History of Papua New Guinea (Melbourne: OUP Australia & New Zealand, 2014).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Compare, for example, Gibbs, Philip, “Papua New Guinea,” in Globalization and the Re-Shaping of Christianity in the Pacific Islands, ed. Ernst, Manfred (Suva, Fiji Islands: Pacific Theological College, 2006): 82–158.Google Scholar

¹⁸ The first attempt to Christianize the Indigenous inhabitants in coastal areas took place in 1855. An intensive and systematic effort began in the 1870s. See Mückler, Hehrmann, Mission in Ozeanien (Vienna: Facultas Verlag, 2009), 82–83Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Maiden, Peter, Missionaries, Headhunters & Colonial Officers (Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 2003).Google Scholar

²⁰ Papua New Guinea, National Report, 2015, .Google Scholar

²¹ Hauck, Volker, Mandie-Filer, Angela, and Bolger, Joe, Ringing the Church Bell: The Role of Churches in Governance and Public Performance in Papua New Guinea (Maastricht: The European Centre for Development Policy Management 2005), 6–11.Google Scholar

²² Compare, for example, Brown, Paula, Beyond Mountain Valley (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Schieffelin, Eric and Crittenden, Robert, eds., Like People You See in a Dream (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991)Google Scholar, and Connolly, Bob and Anderson, Robert, First Contact (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1988).Google Scholar

²³ Compare with Barth, Frederik, Ritual and Knowledge among the Baktaman of New Guinea (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975).Google Scholar

²⁴ Fortune, Reo, Manus Religion (Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society, 1935).Google Scholar

²⁵ Blackwood, Beatrice, The Kukukuku of the Upper Watut (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).Google Scholar

²⁶ Gerrits, Godfried Johan, The Haus Tambaran of Bongiora (Lugano: Museo delle Culture di Lugano, 2012).Google Scholar

²⁷ Compare with Kjellgren, Eric, Oceania (New York: The Metropolitam Museum of Art, 2007), 65–66.Google Scholar

²⁸ Bateson, Gregory, Naven (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁹ Gourlay, K. A., Sound-Producing Instruments in Traditional Society (Canberra: Australian National University, 1975).Google Scholar

³⁰ Hogbin, Ian, The Island of Menstruating Men (Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1970).Google Scholar

³¹ See, for example, Herdt, Gilbert H., Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² Mantovani, Ennio, An Introduction to Melanesian Religions (Goroka: The Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 1995).Google Scholar

³³ Mantovani, An Introduction to Melanesian Religions, 31.

³⁴ Mantovani, An Introduction to Melanesian Religions, 93.

³⁵ Codrington, Robert, The Melanesians (New York: Dover Publications, 1891), .Google Scholar

³⁶ Codrington, The Melanesians, 119–21.

³⁷ Marett, Robert, The Threshold of Religion (London: Methuen, 1909), .Google Scholar

³⁸ Burnett Tylor, Edward, Primitive Culture (London: John Murray, 1871).Google Scholar

³⁹ Marett, The Threshold of Religion, 137.

⁴⁰ van Baal, Jan, Symbols for Communication (Aseen: Van Gorcum, 1971), .Google Scholar

⁴¹ Fortune, Reo, Sorcerers of Dobu (London: George Routledge, 1932)Google Scholar. See also Lawrence, Peter and Meggitt, Mervyn, eds., Gods, Ghosts and Men in Melanesia (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1965), .Google Scholar

⁴² History of New Guinea Highlands exploration is extensively described in James Sinclair, The Middle Kingdom (Adelaide: Crawford Publishing, 2016).Google Scholar

⁴³ Schieffelin and Crittenden, Like People You See in a Dream. See also Connolly and Anderson, First Contact, 93; Leahy, Michael, Explorations into Highland New Guinea (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1991), Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Connolly and Anderson, First Contact, 55.

⁴⁵ Barker, John, “Christianity in Western Melanesia Ethnography,” in History and Tradition in Melanesian Anthropology, ed. Carrier, James (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), .Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Barker, , “Christianity in Western Melanesia Ethnography,” .Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See, mainly, Lawrence, Peter, Road Belong Cargo (Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1989)Google Scholar, or Worsley, Peter, The Trumpet Shall Sound (London: Palatin, 1970).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Compare with Soukup, Martin and Lužný, Dušan, “The Story of Storyboards from East Sepik, Papua New Guinea,” Annals of the Náprstek Museum 40 (2019): 59–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁹ For example, Harrison, William H., In Praise of Mixed Religion: The Syncretism Solution in a Multifaith World (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2014), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁰ Knapp, Regina, Culture Change and Ex-Change: Syncretism and Anti-Syncretism in Bena, Eastern Highlands, Papua New Guinea (New York: Berghahn Books, 2017), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵¹ The knowledge of this cultural group was obtained by one of the authors of this study during field research.

⁵² Knapp, Culture Change and Ex-Change, 244.

⁵³ For detailed research results, see Mantovani, Ennio, Marriage in Melanesia: An Anthropological Perspective (Goroka: Melanesian Institute, 1992).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 34.

⁵⁵ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 167.

⁵⁶ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 192–95.

⁵⁷ The authors of this study do not have enough evidence to compare with other regions, such as those dominated by Catholic missions, where the situation may be different.

⁵⁸ Sillitoe, Paul, An Introduction to the Anthropology of Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), .Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Sillitoe, An Introduction to the Anthropology of Melanesia, 144.

⁶⁰ See, for example, Brown, Beyond Mountain Valley.

⁶¹ Sillitoe, Introduction to the Anthropology of Melanesia, 144.

⁶² Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 214.

⁶³ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 212.

⁶⁴ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 126.

⁶⁵ See Sillitoe, Paul, “Man-Eating Women: Fears of Sexual Pollution in the Papua New Guinea Highlands,” Journal of the Polynesian Society 88 (1978): 77–97.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Mantovani, Marriage in Melanesia, 123–24.

⁶⁷ Auka, Ravunamu, Gore, Barbara, and Pealiwan, Rebecca, “Sorcery- and Witchcraft-Related Killings in Papua New Guinea: The Criminal Justice System Response,” in Talking It Through: Responses to Sorcery and Witchcraft Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia, ed. Miranda Forsyth, and Eves, Richard (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2015), .Google Scholar

⁶⁸ See, for example Michele, Stephen, ed., Sorcerer and Witch in Melanesia (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ See Evans-Pritchard, Edward, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Compare with Codrington, The Melanesians.

⁷¹ See Williams, Francis, Orokaiva Magic (London: Humphrey Milford, 1928).Google Scholar

⁷² George Frazer, James, Golden Bough (London: MacMillan, 1890).Google Scholar

⁷³ Fortune, Sorcerers of Dobu, 154, 167.

⁷⁴ Richard Salisbury, “The Siane of the Eastern Highlands,” in Gods, Ghosts and Men in Melanesia, 58.

⁷⁵ See Auka, Gore, and Pealiwan, “Sorcery- and Witchcraft-Related Killings in Papua New Guinea,” 246.

⁷⁶ Zocca, Franco and Urame, Jack, Sorcery, Witchcraft and Christianity in Melanesia (Goroka: The Melanesian Institute for Pastoral and Socio-Economic Service, 2008), .Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Zocca and Urame, Sorcery, Witchcraft and Christianity in Melanesia, 44.

⁷⁸ Zocca and Urame, Sorcery, Witchcraft and Christianity in Melanesia, 33.

⁷⁹ Zocca and Urame, Sorcery, Witchcraft and Christianity in Melanesia, 45.

⁸⁰ Soukup and Lužný, “The Story of Storyboards from East Sepik, Papua New Guinea,” 62.

⁸¹ Robertson, Roland, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage Publications, 1992).Google Scholar

⁸² Sahlins, Marshall, Islands of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), .Google Scholar