¹ In Murray, SJ, John Courtney, “The Roman Catholic Church,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 256 (March 1948): 36–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² Cathleen Kaveny, M., Ethics at the Edges of Law: Christian Moralists and American Legal Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), .Google Scholar

³ Robert W. McElroy, “He Held These Truths,” America, February 7, 2005.

⁴ See Pelotte, SSS, Donald E., John Courtney Murray: Theologian in Conflict (New York: Paulist Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Leon Hooper, SJ, J., The Ethics of Discourse: The Social Philosophy of John Courtney Murray (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1986)Google Scholar; Ferguson, Thomas P., Catholic and American: The Political Theology of John Courtney Murray (Kansas City, MO: Sheed and Ward, 1993)Google Scholar; J. Leon Hooper, SJ, and Todd David Whitmore, eds., John Courtney Murray & the Growth of Tradition (Kansas City, MO: Sheed and Ward, 1996); Hollenbach, SJ, David, “Religious Freedom, Morality, and Law: John Courtney Murray Today,” Journal of Moral Theology 1, no. 1 (2012): 69–91.Google Scholar

⁵ See “To Be Catholic and American,” Time, December 12, 1960.

⁶ Hollenbach, “Religious Freedom, Morality, and Law,” 83. Hollenbach’s view that Murray turned to Aquinas can also be found in, for example, O’Malley, John W., What Happened at Vatican II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), Google Scholar; McGreevy, John T., Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), Google Scholar; Hart, D. G., American Catholic: The Politics of Faith During the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2020), 38–40.Google Scholar

⁷ Gleason, Philip, “American Catholics and Liberalism, 1879–1960,” in Catholicism and Liberalism: Contributions to American Public Philosophy, eds. Bruce Douglass, R. and Hollenbach, David (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), .Google Scholar

⁸ Murray, SJ, John Courtney, We Hold These Truths: Catholic Reflections on the American Proposition (Kansas City, MO: Sheed and Ward, 1960), Google Scholar. All subsequent citations to We Hold These Truths are from the 1960 edition, unless otherwise noted.

⁹ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 30. This view was echoed in John Murray, SJ, Courtney, “Freedom, Responsibility, and Law,” Catholic Lawyer 2 (July 1956): .Google Scholar

¹⁰ See Augustine Lawler, Peter, “Critical Introduction,” in Murray, John Courtney SJ, We Hold These Truths: Catholic Reflections on the American Proposition (Lanham, MD: Sheed and Ward, 2005), 1–22Google Scholar. For further discussion of Lawler, see Kersch, Ken I., Conservatives and the Constitution: Imagining Constitutional Restoration in the Heyday of American Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹ See, generally, Lawler, “Critical Introduction,” We Hold These Truths, 11–15.

¹² Richard Reinsch, “Recovering the American Proposition with Peter Augustine Lawler,” Public Discourse, May 18, 2022.

¹³ See Lawler, Peter Augustine and Reinsch, Richard M. II, A Constitution in Full: Recovering the Unwritten Foundation of American Liberty (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2019), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁴ The scholars who have self-consciously engaged with Augustine and Murray have either briefly suggested that the two theologians shared similar political theologies or have attempted to contrast aspects of their thought. Edmund Santurri, for instance, has suggested that “pre–Vatican II Murray” and a “modern Augustinian” inspired by Book 19 of The City of God could share a “similar spirit in approach to [the First Amendment and religious neutrality].” From a more critical perspective, William Cavanaugh has placed Murray and Augustine in conversation to highlight how “some deficiencies” in Murray’s conceptualization of political space can be rectified by Augustine’s “tale of two cities.” See, respectively, Santurri, Edmund N., “The Proximity of Hippo to Harvard: A Very Belated Reply to Gilbert Meilaender,” Studies in Christian Ethics 30, no. 2 (2017): CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cavanaugh, William T., “From One City to Two: Christian Reimagining of Political Space,” Political Theology 7, no. 3 (2006): 299–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵ Yanitelli, Victor R., ed., “A Church-State Anthology: The Work of Father Murray,” Thought: Fordham University Quarterly 27, no. 104 (Spring 1952): CrossRefGoogle Scholar, in box 20, folder 6, NCWC/USCC/USCCB Legal Department/General Counsel Records, Special Collections of the University Library, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC.

¹⁶ See Lamb, Michael, “Beyond Pessimism: A Structure of Encouragement in Augustine’s City of God,” Review of Politics 80, no. 4 (Fall 2018): .Google Scholar

¹⁷ See Lamb, “Beyond Pessimism,” 593.

¹⁸ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 37.

¹⁹ Emmet John Hughes, “A Man for Our Season: An Address for the John Courtney Murray Forum at Hunter College,” box 161, folder 6, George Gilmary Higgins Papers, Special Collections of the University Library, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC (hereafter GGHP).

²⁰ “The Annual Report of the Department of Philosophy, 1951–1952,” box 5, folder 354, John Courtney Murray, SJ, Papers, Booth Family Center for Special Collections, Georgetown University Library, Washington, DC (hereafter JCMP).

²¹ “Selected Bibliography on the Theology of History,” box 5, folder 354, JCMP. Given that this reading list is not marked with a name or course number, it is unclear exactly who (or what) the list was for. In the context of Murray’s scholarly background, the texts recommended on the bibliography (many of which were authored by Jesuits), and Murray’s teaching and advising responsibilities at Yale, however, we can reasonably infer that the list was likely prepared by Murray for the undergraduate students with whom he worked during the 1951–1952 academic year. Moreover, because none of the recommended texts were published after 1951, the evidence suggests that Murray—who certainly kept himself apprised of new theological scholarship as part of his Theological Studies editorship—attempted to offer his students at Yale both classic and contemporary scholarship in this area.

²² See, for example, Augustine, The City of God Against the Pagans, ed. and trans. R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 1.4, 3.14. All citations to The City of God are formatted by book and chapter number in the Dyson translation. For further scholarly discussion of Augustine’s reading of Roman history, see, for example, Fortin, Ernest L., “St. Augustine,” in History of Political Philosophy, 3rd ed., ed. Strauss, Leo and Crospey, Joseph (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987), Google Scholar; Patterson, L. G., God and History in Early Christian Thought: A Study of Themes from Justin Martyr to Gregory the Great (New York: The Seabury Press, 1967), Google Scholar; Lamb, Michael, A Commonwealth of Hope: Augustine’s Political Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2022), .Google Scholar

²³ O’Daly, Gerard, Augustine’s City of God: A Reader’s Guide, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁴ See, for example, Augustine, The City of God, 5.1, 5.19, 5.21.

²⁵ Augustine, The City of God, 1.1.

²⁶ See Fellner, Felix, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising and Its Influence on the Catholic Philosophy of History,” Catholic Historical Review 20, no. 2 (July 1934): .Google Scholar

²⁷ Fellner, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising,” 154.

²⁸ Fellner, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising,” 154.

²⁹ Fellner, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising,” 154.

³⁰ Fellner, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising,” 170, 161.

³¹ Fellner, “The ‘Two Cities’ of Otto of Freising,” 159, 164.

³² See Marrou, Henri-Irénée, L’Ambivalence du temps de l’Histoire chez S. Augustin (Paris: J. Vrin, 1950), Google Scholar. For further scholarly discussion of Augustine’s thinking about the ultimate inscrutability of God’s salvific plan, see Deane, Herbert A., The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, 2nd ed. (Tacoma, WA: Angelico Press, 2013), Google Scholar; Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 169, 237, 240; Markus, R. A., Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St. Augustine (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 170), .Google Scholar

³³ Unsigned review of L’Ambivalence du temps de l’Histoire chez S. Augustin, by Marrou, H., Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale 56, no. 3 (July–September 1951): .Google Scholar

³⁴ See Arendt, Hannah, The Human Condition, 2nd ed. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 53–55Google Scholar, and Billings, David, “Natality or Advent: Hannah Arendt and Jurgen Moltmann on Hope and Politics,” in The Future of Hope: Christian Tradition amid Modernity and Postmodernity, eds. Volf, Miroslav and Katerberg, William (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), Google Scholar. Both Arendt and Billings are discussed in Lamb, “Beyond Pessimism,” 592.

³⁵ Michel Coenraet, review of L’Ambivalence du temps de l’Histoire chez S. Augustin, by H. Marrou, Revue Philosophique de Louvain 50 (1952): 626.

³⁶ See Nussbaum, Martha C., Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of the Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Coenraet, review of L’Ambivalence du temps de l’Histoire chez S. Augustin, 626. Nussbaum is discussed in Lamb, “Beyond Pessimism,” 592.

³⁷ Gustave Bardy, review of L’Ambivalence du temps de l’Histoire chez S. Augustin, by H. Marrou, Revue d’Historie Ecclesiastique 46 (January 1951): 737.

³⁸ See, for example, Augustine, The City of God, 17.4.

³⁹ See Fortin, Ernest L., Classical Christianity and the Political Order: Reflections on the Theologico-Political Problem (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996), Google Scholar. Herbert Deane has likewise argued that Augustine believed that there is a “meaning and purpose in history.” See Deane, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, 68.

⁴⁰ Keys, Mary M., Pride, Politics, and Humility in Augustine’s City of God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), .CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴¹ Keys, Pride, Politics, and Humility in Augustine’s City of God, 35.

⁴² Keys, Pride, Politics, and Humility in Augustine’s City of God, 35.

⁴³ Contrary to scholars who have argued that “by the time Augustine writes the City of God, ‘the natural order’ only refers to ‘the physical world,’” I follow Veronica Roberts Ogle in reading Augustine’s “order of nature” as referring to the “whole of God’s providential design.” See Veronica Roberts Ogle, Politics and the Earthly City in Augustine’s City of God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 160.

⁴⁴ Augustine, The City of God, 11.22.

⁴⁵ Augustine’s belief that Providence seeks to teach human persons to grow in love of God should come as no surprise. As Herbert Deane has rightly observed, Augustine was himself a “pastor and a preacher, who was seeking to turn men away from themselves and the things of this world and to call them back to God.” See Deane, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, 13.

⁴⁶ Richard Munkelt has likewise advanced this view of how Augustine understands the act of loving God through the act of loving one’s neighbor: “Right love … ultimately points to the love of the triune God and of neighbor, which is the responsibility of individuals and political communities alike.” See Richard A. Munkelt, “Foreword,” to The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, xxii. For further scholarly discussion of the relationship between love of God and love of neighbor, see, for example, Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 38, 44.

⁴⁷ Augustine, The City of God, 12.10.

⁴⁸ Augustine, The City of God, 10.4.

⁴⁹ See Theodore E. Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress: The Background of the City of God,” Journal of the History of Ideas 12, no. 3 (June 1951).

⁵⁰ See “Selected Bibliography on the Theology of History,” JCMP.

⁵¹ Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress,” 352–53.

⁵² Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress,” 355.

⁵³ Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress,” 355.

⁵⁴ Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress,” 370.

⁵⁵ Mommsen, “St. Augustine and the Christian Idea of Progress,” 372.

⁵⁶ Cavanaugh, “From One City to Two,” 302.

⁵⁷ Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 159.

⁵⁸ Roberts Ogle, Veronica, “Healing Hope: A Response to Peter Iver Kaufman,” Augustinian Studies 53, no. 1 (2022): CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ogle, Politics and the Earthly City in Augustine’s City of God, 137.

⁵⁹ Ogle, “Healing Hope,” 49. For further discussion of the role of amor Dei and amor sui in Augustine’s political theology, see Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 195.

⁶⁰ Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 221.

⁶¹ Augustine, The City of God, 19.23. For further scholarly discussion of this “faith which works by love,” see Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 94–96.

⁶² Keys, Pride, Politics, and Humility in Augustine’s City of God, 35. Augustine’s emphasis on Providence’s ordaining of earthly political communities explains his consequent belief that Christians must accept those powers which God has ordained, even when those powers repress Christians for their testament to the Gospel. See, for example, Augustine, The City of God, 5.21, 18.2, 18.51. In fact, for Augustine, all political rulers, even those who reject the Gospel (such as the Romans) serve divine ends. See, for example, Augustine, The City of God, 18.22.

⁶³ See Henry Paolucci, “Introduction,” to The Political Writings of St. Augustine (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 1962), xx–xxi. For further scholarly discussion of Augustine’s thinking about how God uses even wicked persons and events to serve divine ends, see Deane, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, 67–68, 70, 144–45, 157; Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 203.

⁶⁴ Augustine, The City of God, 18.51.

⁶⁵ Deane, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine, 71.

⁶⁶ On human pilgrimage, see, for example, Augustine, The City of God, 1.29, 14.9. For further scholarly discussion, see Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 130.

⁶⁷ See Charles Norris Cochrane, Christianity and Classical Culture: A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine (New York: Liberty Fund, 2003), 529.

⁶⁸ Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 180; emphasis mine. It is worth noting that this reading of Augustine—which Murray, as we will see, adopted—runs directly counter to the once-dominant understanding that “social arrangements [have] … no immediate relation to perfection or salvation” in Augustine’s political theology. See Markus, Saeculum, 98.

⁶⁹ Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 197.

⁷⁰ Reproduced in Murray, We Hold These Truths, 30.

⁷¹ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 30.

⁷² Murray, We Hold These Truths, 67, 69–70.

⁷³ Despite the fact that Murray was largely preoccupied with the successful American experience of religious liberty, he also posited in other writings that Divine Providence had led many other nations to institutionally divorce church from state—a divinely ordained historical reality to which the church was bound to respond. See, for example, John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Contemporary Orientations of Catholic Thought on Church and State in the Light of History,” Theological Studies 10 (June 1949): 177–234.

⁷⁴ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 9.

⁷⁵ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 133.

⁷⁶ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 186. Murray labeled God “the Master of history” in a 1965 radio prayer for Radio-Luxembourg. For the context of this prayer and the text thereof, see John Courtney Murray, SJ, to Ernest J. Primeau, July 26, 1965, box 13, folder 3, Ernest J. Primeau Vatican Council II Collection, Special Collections of the University Library, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC (hereafter EJPVCC); Murray to Primeau, August 2, 1965, box 13, folder 3, EJPVCC; Primeau to Jean Boundaries, August 30, 1965, box 13, folder 13, EJPVCC.

⁷⁷ Though this article is principally concerned with Murray’s political theology of the American Founding, his reflections on American politics also had international implications. In a 1944 pamphlet prepared for the Catholic Association for International Peace, for instance, Murray asserted that natural law should lie “at the heart of a new political and socio-economic order in national and international life.” This employment of natural law, Murray thought, would contribute to the “ordered tranquility of the earthly city of man.” See John Courtney Murray, SJ, The Pattern for Peace and the Papal Peace Program (Washington, DC: Paulist Press, 1944), 11.

⁷⁸ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 186.

⁷⁹ See O’Connor, William R., The Layman’s Call (New York: P. J. Kenedy & Sons, 1942).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ John Courtney Murray, SJ, review of The Layman’s Call, by William R. O’Connor, Theological Studies 3 (December 1942): 608.

⁸¹ Murray, review of The Layman’s Call, 608.

⁸² Murray, review of The Layman’s Call, 609.

⁸³ Murray, We Hold These Truths, 191. This view was articulated in “The Christian Idea of Education” (c. 1955), in which Murray proposed that the Church Fathers were prompted to question the “relation between the service of an earthly city and a citizenship in the Kingdom of God.” See John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Christian Idea of Education,” in Bridging the Sacred and Secular: Selected Writings of John Courtney Murray, ed. J. Leon Hooper, SJ (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1994), 134–35. Unsurprisingly, God’s fixing “by His own authority the times and seasons” is likewise discussed in Augustine, The City of God, 18.50.

⁸⁴ Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 177.

⁸⁵ See John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Freedom of Religion, I: The Ethical Problem,” Theological Studies 6 (June 1945): 229–86.

⁸⁶ Murray, “Freedom of Religion, I: The Ethical Problem,” 236.

⁸⁷ Murray, “Freedom of Religion, I: The Ethical Problem,” 237–38.

⁸⁸ Murray, “Freedom of Religion, I: The Ethical Problem,” 238.

⁸⁹ Murray, “Freedom of Religion, I: The Ethical Problem,” 238.

⁹⁰ Louis Duprè, “The Common Good and the Open Society,” in Catholicism and Liberalism, 175.

⁹¹ John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Memorandum on the Admission of Negro Students to Saint Louis University, to School Dances, and to the Society of Jesus,” box 8, folder 585, JCMP.

⁹² John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Real Woman Today,” America, November 3, 1945.

⁹³ See John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Status of the Nicene Creed as Dogma,” in Bridging the Sacred and Secular, 327.

⁹⁴ Murray, “The Status of the Nicene Creed as Dogma,” 327.

⁹⁵ John Courtney Murray, SJ, “God’s Word and Its Realization,” America, December 1945, xix–xxi; John Courtney Murray, SJ, The Problem of God: Yesterday and Today (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964), 35.

⁹⁶ See, again, Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 36. See also John Courtney Murray, SJ, “What Does the Catholic Church Want?,” Catholic Digest 13 (December 1948): 51–53; John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Roman Catholic Church,” Catholic Mind 46 (September 1984): 580–88. Hereafter, all citations to “The Roman Catholic Church” come from the version published in the Annals.

⁹⁷ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 39.

⁹⁸ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 40.

⁹⁹ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 40.

¹⁰⁰ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 41.

¹⁰¹ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 37.

¹⁰² Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 37.

¹⁰³ Murray, “The Roman Catholic Church,” 37.

¹⁰⁴ See John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Role of Faith in the Renovation of the World,” Messenger of the Sacred Heart 83 (March 1948): 15–17.

¹⁰⁵ Murray, “The Role of Faith in the Renovation of the World,” 15. Murray also discusses “building a City” through human hands in John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Reversing the Secularist Drift,” Thought 24 (March 1949): 36–46.

¹⁰⁶ Murray, “The Role of Faith in the Renovation of the World,” 17.

¹⁰⁷ Murray, “The Role of Faith in the Renovation of the World,” 15.

¹⁰⁸ See Murray, “Contemporary Orientations of Catholic Thought on Church and State in the Light of History,” 213, 218, 224–25, 229.

¹⁰⁹ In chronological order, see John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Leo XIII on Church and State: The General Structure of the Controversy,” Theological Studies 14 (March 1953): 1–30; John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Leo XIII: Separation of Church and State,” Theological Studies 14 (June 1953): 145–314; John Courtney Murray, SJ, “Leo XIII: Two Concepts of Government,” Theological Studies 14 (December 1953): 551–67.

¹¹⁰ Murray, “Leo XIII: Separation of Church and State,” 177.

¹¹¹ Reproduced in John T. McGinn, CSP, “Father Gustave Weigel, SJ,” Guide 185 (February 1964): 2, in box 5, folder 7, EJPVCC.

¹¹² See John Courtney Murray, SJ, The Problem of Religious Freedom (Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1965), available from the Woodstock Theological Library at https://library.georgetown.edu/woodstock/murray/1964e.

¹¹³ See Murray, “Leo XIII: Separation of Church and State,” 194. For references to Augustine in Immortale Dei, see Leo XIII, Encyclical on the Christian Constitution of States Immortale Dei, §2, 20, 36–37 (1885), at The Holy See, https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_01111885_immortale-dei.html. For Murray’s further reflections on Immortale Dei and its relationship to The City of God, see John Courtney Murray, SJ, “The Issue of Church and State at Vatican Council II,” Theological Studies 27 (December 1966): 600.

¹¹⁴ Murray, “Leo XIII: Separation of Church and State,” 195.

¹¹⁵ Murray, “Leo XIII: Separation of Church and State,” 196, 199.

¹¹⁶ Murray, “Leo XIII: Two Concepts of Government,” 561.

¹¹⁷ For the text of these lectures, this article references the edited transcription prepared by Joseph A. Komonchak: John Courtney Murray, SJ, The Construction of a Christian Culture, ed. Joseph A. Komonchak, available at https://jakomonchak.files.wordpress.com/2020/03/jcm-loyola-lectures-1940.pdf.

¹¹⁸ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 2.

¹¹⁹ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 8.

¹²⁰ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 8.

¹²¹ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 11.

¹²² Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 17.

¹²³ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 21.

¹²⁴ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 21.

¹²⁵ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 22.

¹²⁶ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 26.

¹²⁷ Fortin, “St. Augustine,” 197.

¹²⁸ Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 171; emphasis in original.

¹²⁹ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 32.

¹³⁰ Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 34.

¹³¹ Augustine, The City of God, 19.23.

¹³² See Murray, The Construction of a Christian Culture, 36.

¹³³ Lamb, A Commonwealth of Hope, 3.

¹³⁴ See “Editorial Information,” National Catholic Welfare Conference News Service, December 6, 1963, in box 5, folder 7, EJPVCC.

¹³⁵ Augustine, The City of God, 14.27.

¹³⁶ Augustine, The City of God, 20.2.

¹³⁷ I would like to thank Mark Massa, SJ; Ryan Patrick Hanley; Horizons’s anonymous reviewers; and the participants in the March 2023 convening of the Advanced Seminar in Philosophy and Theology at Boston College for their comments on earlier drafts of this article. I would also like to thank the University Fellowships Committee at Boston College for its financial support of this research.