¹ ‘Revisited’, p. 280.

² La Révolution, p. 8.

³ Translated as Interpreting the French revolution (Cambridge, 1981)Google Scholar.

⁴ La Gauche, p. 38.

⁵ Ibid. pp. 33–4, see also p. 38 and Dictionnaire, pp. 1041–44.

⁶ La Gauche, pp. 33–4, 38.

⁷ This is a point elaborately made in Marx, p. 27, for example. However, it is clear that Tocqueville constantly related political democracy to those socio-economic conditions which would either assure its beneficial or pernicious development. In particular, the combination of ‘democracy’ and self-interested bourgeois society was seen by Tocqueville as particularly obnoxious.

⁸ Article ‘Bonaparte’ in Dictionnaire, pp. 216–29. Reference to Louis XIV, p. 224. Louis and Bonaparte shared the ethos of ‘l'état e'est moi’, reinforced in the latter's case by reference to the sovereignty of the people.

⁹ Furet, François, Julliard, Jacques and Rosanvallon, Pierre, La République du centre (Paris, 1988)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Holden, Barry, Understanding liberal democracy (Oxford, 1988), p. 6Google Scholar.

¹¹ Graham, Keith, The battle for democracy (Brighton, 1986)Google Scholar.

¹² Quoted in Simon, W. M. (ed.), French liberalism 1789–1848 (New York, 1972), p. 16Google Scholar. Of course, Mounier was referring to pure democracy as the rule of the mob, as anarchic ‘direct democracy’.

¹³ Robespierre, , ‘Sur les principes de morale politique’, speech of 18 pluviôse an II – 5 Feb. 1794, in Poperen, J. (ed.), Textes choisis (Paris, 1974), III, 110–31Google Scholar.

¹⁴ ‘Revisited’, p. 279.

¹⁵ ‘Les élections de 1789 à Paris: le Tiers Etat et la naissance d'une classe dirigeante’, in Vom Ancien Régime zur Französischen Revolution, ed. Hinrichs, E. et al. (Göttingen, 1978), pp. 188–206Google Scholar.

¹⁶ See, for example, Furet, F., ‘De la démocratic en Amérique’ (under Tocqueville) in Dictionnaire des œuvres politiques, ed. Chatelet, F. et al. (Paris, 1986), pp. 821–33Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Bénéton, Philippe, Introduction à la politique moderne (Paris, 1987), p. 133Google Scholar; Manent, Pierre, Tocqueville et la nature de la démocratie (Paris, 1982), esp. pp. 170 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Tocqueville's letters, especially those of the 1830s, show his concern with the preconditions under which the maximum of political participation might best be attained. Education, elevated moral ideals, a reasonable spread of private property were essential prerequisites. See, for example, letters to Louis de Kergolay, Jan. 1835, pp. 93–4; to Eugène Stoffels, 21 Feb. 1835, pp. 98–9; to same, 5 Oct. 1836, pp. 113–14 etc.; de Tocqueville, Alexis, Selected letters on politics and society, ed. Boesche, R. (Berkeley, 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Jaume, Lucien, Le Discours jacobin et la démocratie (Paris, 1989)Google Scholarand Genty, Maurice, L'apprentissage de la citoyenneté, Paris 1789–1795 (Paris, 1987)Google Scholar.

²⁰ ‘Revisited’, p. 279.

²¹ Robespierre, , Textes ckoisis, ed. Poperen, J., III, 110–31Google Scholar.

²² ‘Revisited’, p. 279.

²³ Admittedly to J. S. Mill, June 1835. de Tocqueville, Alexis, Selected letters on politics and society, p. 101Google Scholar.

²⁴ ‘Revisited’, p. 276.

²⁵ For example, debates on the Loi Le Chapelier.

²⁶ Palmer, R. R., The age of the democratic revolution (2 vols., Princeton, 1959 and 1964)Google Scholar, and The world of the French revolution (London, 1971)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Boesche, Roger, The strange liberalism of Alexis de Tocqueville (Ithaca, 1987), p. 236Google Scholar.

²⁸ ‘Revisited’, pp. 279, 280.

²⁹ Quoted in Simon, W. M., French liberalism, 1789–1848, p. 31Google Scholar.

³⁰ ‘Revisited’, p. 272.

³¹ Ibid. p. 275.

³² Ibid. p. 276.

³³ Ibid. p. 280.

³⁴ Ibid. p. 279.

³⁵ La Révolution, pp. 24, 27, etc.

³⁶ For the confused birth of a death, Venturino, Diego, ‘La naissance de l'ancien régime’, in Lucas, C. (ed.), The political culture of the French revolution, vol. 2 of The French revolution and the creation of modern political culture (Oxford, 1988), pp. 11–40Google Scholar.

³⁷ La Révolution, pp. 26 ff.

³⁸ On Turgot, , La Révolution, pp. 35 ffGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ La Révolution, p. 28.

⁴⁰ Ibid. p. 57.

⁴¹ Furet, F., ‘La monarchie et le règlement électoral de 1789’, in Baker, K. M. (ed.), The political culture of the old regime, vol. 1 of The French revolution and the creation of modern political culture (Oxford, 1987), pp. 375–86Google Scholar. Quotation, p. 385. Also, La Révolution, pp. 72–4. In Keith Baker's volume, see also Halévi, Ran, ‘La monarchic et les élections’, pp. 387–402Google Scholar.

⁴² On this complex question, Parrot, Jean-Philippe, La représentation des intérêts dans le mouvement des idées politiques (Paris, 1974)Google Scholar. Note the judgement, at variance with Furet's, : ‘Les régimes censitaires n'eurent pas d'autre motivation que celle d'une représentation professionnelle des intérêts de la classe des possédants…il s'agissait d'une représentation des intérêts des contribuables et des propriétaires aisés’ (p. 5)Google Scholar.

⁴³ Furet, F. and Halévi, Ran, ‘L'Année 1789’, Annales, E.S.C., XLIV, 1 (1989), 3–24Google Scholar, quotations in this and next paragraph, pp. 19–20, and La Révolution, p. 72.

⁴⁴ La Révolution, p. 72.

⁴⁵ Dictionnaire, p. 759. Furet, adds to this: ‘Et par l'intermédiaire du Bolchévisme, le parti jacobin a eu un beau XX^e siècle’, p. 761Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ La Révolution, p. 79.

⁴⁷ Ibid. pp. 67, 72.

⁴⁸ Furet, , in Baker, , The political culture of the old regime, p. 380Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Ibid. p. 378.

⁵⁰ La Gauche, p. 52. Tocqueville remarked, of eighteenth-century prosperity: ‘It may seem that, with life filled with such satisfactions, the mind would turn away from the abstract sciences of man and society to concentrate more on small daily affairs. This is what we shall see all too much of today, but it is the opposite of what then happened.’ Although Tocqueville is hardly a historian of the ‘bourgeoisie’, he was at least less dismissive of even the commercial classes of the eighteenth century than have been some of his successors. Quoted in Palmer, R. R. (ed.), The two Tocquevilles, father and son, on the coming of the French revolution (Princeton, 1987), p. 155Google Scholar.

⁵¹ For Barnave, , Dictionnaire, pp. 206–14Google Scholar.

⁵² La Révolution, pp. 62, 73, 74, 75, 86.

⁵³ Ibid. p. 106; Gauche, 53, 63.

⁵⁴ Marx, 25.

⁵⁵ La Révolution, p. 106.

⁵⁶ Ibid. p. 74, 82.

⁵⁷ Ibid. p. 106.

⁵⁸ Ibid. p. 107.

⁵⁹ Furet, F., introduction to L'héritage de la révolution française (Paris, 1988), pp. 29, 30Google Scholar. As is recognized in L'héritage, ‘C'est dans l'écart entre la Déclaration des Droits et la division des classes qu'elle [la Révolution] tire, jusqu'au 9 Thermidor, les secrets de sa fuite en avant’. p. 27.

⁶⁰ La Révolution, p. 96. Furet gives quotes which suggest that the question of interests is much more intriguing than we might imagine from his text, especially when entwined with privilege: ‘Or le privilège extrait son bénéficiaire de la sphère publique de la Cité pour le définer par des intérêts particuliers qui l'en séparent en le plaçant hors de la citoyenneté.’ It makes him an ‘aristocrat’ in Sieyès's view. La Révolution, p. 63. See also Necker's views, p. 67.

⁶¹ La Révolution, pp. 86–8.

⁶² Dictionnaire, p. 729.

⁶³ Ibid. p. 632.

⁶⁴ La Révolution, pp. 87, 99, 38.

⁶⁵ I have attempted a first approach in a paper, ‘The pursuit of interests in the French revolution’, delivered at the Bicentenary Conference held at Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York, in 10 1989Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ On the ‘religious’ element, Dictionnaire, pp. 561, 195; La Révolution, pp. 92, 95, 101.

⁶⁷ Dictionnaire, pp. 128–9.

⁶⁸ Ibid. p. 131.

⁶⁹ La Revolution, p. 147.

⁷⁰ Dictionnaire, p. 631.

⁷¹ La Révolution, p. 38.

⁷² Most recently underlined by Tackett, Timothy, ‘The revolutionary dynamic of the national assembly, 1789–1790’, American Historical Review, XCIV, 2 (1989), 271–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ Higonnet, P., Class, ideology and the rights of nobles during the French revolution (Oxford, 1981)Google Scholar; David, M., Fraternité et Révolution française (Paris, 1987)Google Scholar; Kennedy, Michael, The Jacobin clubs in the French revolution, vol. 2: The middle years (Princeton, 1988)Google Scholar; Mitchell, C. J., The French Legislative Assembly of 1791 (Leiden, 1988)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Archives nationales, 29 AP 90.

⁷⁵ La Révolution, p. 143, and Bruguière, Michel, Gestionnaires et profiteurs de la Révolution (Paris, 1986)Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Bénéton, P., Introduction à la la politique moderne, pp. 327 ffGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁷ Robespierre, in Poperen, (ed.), Textes choisis, III, 113Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Dictionnaire, p. 220 – on Napoleon, to whom the terror passed on this power inherited from the old regime.

⁷⁹ Jaume, L., Le discours jacobin (Paris, 1989)Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ La Gauche, p. 39.

⁸¹ On Bonaparte, , Dictionnaire, pp. 216–29Google Scholar.

⁸² Dictionnaire, p. 583.

⁸³ Holmes, Stephen, Benjamin Constant and the making of modern liberalism (New Haven, 1984), p. 39Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ La Révolution, p. 340.

⁸⁵ Ibid. p. 451.

⁸⁶ Bourgeoisie, , La Révolution, p. 320Google Scholar; political life, p. 325.

⁸⁷ Ibid. p. 290.

⁸⁸ Ibid. p. 337.

⁸⁹ Ibid. p. 241.

⁹⁰ Ibid. p. 307.

⁹¹ Ibid. p. 326.

⁹² Ibid. p. 341.

⁹³ Ibid. p. 348.

⁹⁴ Ibid. p. 356.

⁹⁵ Ibid. p. 218.

⁹⁶ Furet, F. et al. , La République du centre (Paris, 1988), p. 56Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ Ibid. p. 62; P. Rosanvallon, p. 141.

⁹⁸ La Révolution, p. 392.

⁹⁹ Furet, on Babeuf, , Dictionnaire, pp. 199–205Google Scholar; La Révolution, p. 341.

¹⁰⁰ Or the idea of class conflict, to be more precise: Dictionnaire, p. 398. What, for Furet, is the relationship between ideas and illusions?

¹⁰¹ La Révolution, p. 403.

¹⁰² Ibid. p. 152.

¹⁰³ For Marx, and Tocqueville, , La Révolution, pp. 402 ffGoogle Scholar. Much of Marx is devoted to 1848.

¹⁰⁴ Donzelot, Jacques, L'invention du social. Essai sur le déclin des passions françaises (Paris, 1986)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Pierson, Christopher, Marxist theory and democratic politics (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 21–2Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Marx-Engels, , Ecrits sur la Révolution française, ed. Mainfroy, C. (Paris, 1985), p. 114Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Marx, pp. 73, 83, etc.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid. p. 83.

¹⁰⁹ La République du centre, p. 63.

¹¹⁰ La Révolution, p. 503.

¹¹¹ Such points are not, of course, original. In La République du centre, Furet is clearly concerned at the lack of ideas and principles, the absence of inspiring projects, in modern French politics. Philippe Bénéton asks: ‘L'invasion des intérêts privés dans le public n'est-elle pas une forme de corruption du régime démo-libéral? Et la représentation utilitariste de la politique en se mettant en quelque sorte au diapason du réel n'aggrave-t-elle pas cette corruption?’ Markets do not guarantee freedom; moral concerns cannot – or should not – be entirely banished from politics, Introduction à la politique moderne, p. 190.

¹¹² See, for example, for these themes, Keane, John, Democracy and civil society (London, 1988)Google Scholar.