1 Payne, Howard C. and Grosshans, Henry, ‘The Exiled Revolutionaires and the French Political Police in the 1850s’. American Historical Review, 68, 07 1963, p. 966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 See Miller, Martin A., Russian Revolutionary Emigrés, 1825–1870, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986, pp. 199–212, and 217.Google Scholar

3 See Lodge, Tom, ‘State of Exile: The African National Congress of South Africa, 1976–86’, Third World Quarterly, 9 01 1987 , pp. 2–3 Google Scholar.

4 See Cresciani, Gianfranco, Fascism, Anti‐Fascism, and Italians in Australia: 1922–1945, Canberra, Australia National University Press, 1980, p. 99 Google Scholar.

5 Grieb, Kenneth J., ‘The Myth of a Central American Dictators’ League’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 10: 2, 1978, pp. 329–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Linz, Juan J., ‘Opposition to and under an Authoritarian Regime: The case of Spain’, in Dahl, Robert A. (ed.), Regimes and Oppositions, New Haven, Yale Press, 1973, p. 237 Google Scholar.

7 See Newton, Ronald C., ‘Indifferent Sanctuary: German‐Speaking Refugees and Exiles in Argentina, 1933–1945’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 24 11 1982 , pp. 395–420 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 See Poole, Fred and Vanzi, Max, ‘Hounding Philippine Exiles: Marcos’s Secret War in America’, The Nation, 12 05 1984 , pp. 577–78Google Scholar.

9 Aron, Raymond, ‘Is Multinational Citizenship Possible?’, Social Research, 41 Winter 1974, p. 649 Google Scholar.

10 Walzer, Michael, Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War, and Citizenship, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1970, pp. 206–7Google Scholar.

11 See Fox, John P., ‘Nazi Germany and the German Emigration to Great Britian’, in Hirschfeld, Gerhard (ed.), Exile in Great Britain: Refugees from Hitler’s Germany, Atlantic Highlands, N.J., Humanities Press, 1984, p. 41 Google Scholar.

12 Marrus, Michael R., The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth‐Century, New York, Oxford University Press, 1985, p. 126 Google Scholar.

13 Vishniak, Mark, The Legal Status of Stateless Persons, New York, The American Jewish Committee, 1945, p. 10 Google Scholar.

14 Dahrendorf, Ralf, ‘Citizenship and Beyond: The Social Dynamics of an Idea’, Social Research, Winter 41 1974 , p. 674 Google Scholar.

15 Delzel, Charles F., ‘The Italian Anti–Fascist Emigration, 1922–1943’, Journal of Central Europe Affairs, 12 1952 , p. 21 Google Scholar.

16 Ameringer, Charles D., The Democratic Left in Exile: The Antidictatorial Struggle in the Caribbean, 1945–1959, Coral Gables, Florida, University of Miami Press, 1974, p. 58 Google Scholar.

17 Smith, Anthony D.S., Nationalism in the Twentieth Century, New York, New York University Press, 1979, p. 148 Google Scholar.

18 Barber, Benjamin R., Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1984, p. 226 Google Scholar.

19 According to the Soviet authorities, ‘appearing as a symbol and a means of consolidating the unity of a nation within the limits of society, [citizenship] along with other legal institutions, is in fact a more perfect and flexible weapon of domination for the ruling class’. See Shevtsov, Viktor S., Citizenship of the USSR, trans. Lenina Ilitskaya, Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1979, p. 15 Google Scholar.

20 ibid.

21 Cited in Grodzins, Morton, American Betrayed: Politics and the Japanese Evacuation, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1970, p. 152 Google Scholar.

22 Under the Nuremberg Laws of 15 September 1935, Jews were classified as ‘state subjects’. ‘They were defined as a separate race whose marriage or sexual contact with “Aryans” was forbidden by law’. See Gordon, Sarah A., Hitler, Germans, and the Jewish Question, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984, pp. 121–2Google Scholar.

23 See Fox, , ‘Nazi Germany and the German Emigration to Great Britain’, op. cit., p. 40 Google Scholar.

24 Grodzins, Morton, The Loyal and the Disloyal: Social Boundaries of Patriotism and Treason, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1956, p. 233 Google Scholar.

25 Delzell, Charles F., Mussolini’s Enemies: The Italian Anti‐Fascist Resistance, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1961, p. 147 Google Scholar.

26 See Wraga, Ryzard, ‘Russian Emigration After Thirty Years’ Exile’, in Fischer, George (ed.), Russian Emigré Politics, limited edition, New York, Free Russia Fund Inc., 1951, p. 25 Google Scholar.

27 ibid.

28 Tabori, Paul, The Anatomy of Exile: A Semantic and Historical Study, London, Harrap, 1972, p. 204 Google Scholar.

29 D’Souza, Herbert, ‘Return Ticket to Brazil’, Third World Quarterly, 9 01 1987 , 206 Google Scholar.

30 In these harsh words Arthur Koestler described the treatment given by the French authorities to the stateless defeated army of the Spanish Republicans during the Second World War.

31 Dr Frijof Nansen, the Norwegian Ambassador to the League of Nations, was behind the League’s initiative to issue identity cards and travel documents to serve the massive Russian diaspora and other assimilated refugees.

32 See Lengyel, Emil, ‘Refugees From Many Lands Complicate Europe’s International Relations’, New York Times, 20 01 1935 , sec. 9, p. 2 Google Scholar.

33 Cited in Stephan, John J., The Russian Fascists: Tragedy and Farce in Exile 1925–1945, New York, Harper & Row, 1978, p. 9 Google Scholar.

34 Fagen, Patricia W., Exiles and Citizens: Spanish Republicans in Mexico, Austin, University of Texas Press, 1973, pp. 59–60 Google Scholar.

35 Iwańiska, Alija, Exiled Governments: Spanish and Polish. Cambridge, Mass., Schenkman Publishing Co., 1981, p. 60 Google Scholar.

36 Brandt, Willy, In Exile: Essays, Reflections and Letters 1933–1947, trans. Last, R.W., London, Oswald Wolff 1971, p. 165 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 See ‘Exiles from Eastern Europe’, The Economist, editorial, 22 November 1952, pp. 551–2.

38 Edinger, Lewis J., German Exile Politics: The Social Democratic Executive Committee in the Nazi Era, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1956, p. 210 Google Scholar.

39 Tiltman, H. Hessell, The Tenor in Europe, New York, Frederick A. Stokes, 1932, p. 306 Google Scholar.

40 ibid.

41 Wolfe, Bertram D., Three Who Made a Revolution: A Biographical History, New York, The Dial Press, 1948, p. 518 Google Scholar.

42 Fischer, Louis, The Life of Lenin, New York, Harper & Row, 1964, pp. 82–83 Google Scholar.

43 ibid.

44 Dowty, Alan, Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1987, p. 65 Google Scholar.

45 Shulgin, Basil, ‘How I Was Hoodwinked by the Bolsheviks’, The Slavonic Review, 6 06 1927 – 03 1928 , p. 509 Google Scholar.

46 Lehovich, Dimitry V., White Against Red: The Life of General Anton Denkin, New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1974, pp. 428–9Google Scholar.

47 Gaucher, Roland, Opposition in the U.S.S.R. 1917–1967, trans. Markman, L., New York, Funk and Wagnalls, 1969, p. 129 Google Scholar.

48 See Marcum, John A., ‘The Exile Condition and Revolutionary Effectiveness’, in Potholm, Christian P. and Richard, Dale (eds), Southern African Perspective, New York, The Free Press, 1972, p. 269 Google Scholar.

49 Payne, and Grosshans, , ‘The Exiled Revolutionaries and the French Political Police in the 1950s’. op. cit., pp. 954–73>>Google Scholar

50 Fox, , ‘Nazi Germany and German Emigration to Great Britain’, op. cit., p. 51 Google Scholar.

51 Glees, Anthony, ‘The German Political Exile in London 1939–1945’. in Hirschfeld, Gerhard (ed.), Exile in Great Britain, p. 84 Google Scholar.

52 See Smith, Louis E., Mexico and the Spanish Republicans, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1955, pp. 209–10Google Scholar.

53 ibid., p. 211. See also Stein, Louis, Beyond Death and Exile: The Spanish Republicans in France, 1939–1945, Cambridge Mass., Harvard University Press, 1979, p. 125 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Iwańiska, , Exiled Governments, op. cit., p. 35 Google Scholar.

55 Tiltman, , The Terror in Europe, op. cit., pp. 313–14Google Scholar.

56 Zolberg, Aristide R., Suhrke, Astri, and Aguayo, Sergio, ‘International Factors in the Foundation of Refugee Movements’, International Migration Review, 20: 2, 1986, p. 166 Google Scholar.

57 See Damis, John, ‘Morocco, Libya and the Treaty of Union’, American Arab Affairs, 13, Summer 1985, pp. 44–6Google Scholar.

58 Plate, Thomas and Darvi, Andrea, Secret Police: The Inside Story of a Network of Terror, Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday & Co., 1981, p. 273 Google Scholar.

59 On the disappearances of Alexander Koutepov and Evgenii Miller, the heads of the exile monarchists, see Bornstein, Joseph, The Politics of Murder, New York, William Sloane Associates, 1950, pp. 74–94 Google Scholar. See also Lehovich, , White against Red, op. cit., pp. 427–48Google Scholar.

60 See Anders, Karl, Murder to Order, London, Ampersand, 1965 Google Scholar.

61 Tiltman, , The Terror in Europe, op. cit., pp. 299–329 Google Scholar.

62 See Salvemini, Gaetano, ‘The Rosselli Murders’, The New Republic, 18 08 1937 , p. 50 Google Scholar.

63 See Nomad, Max, ‘Underground Europe’, Current History, 02. 1938, pp. 35–8Google Scholar.

64 See Gallagher, Tom, Portugal: A Twentieth‐Century Interpretation, Manchester, ManChester University Press, 1982, pp. 159–160 and 228 Google Scholar.

65 See Bell, J. Bower, Assassin!, New York, St Martin’s Press, 1979, p. 140 Google Scholar.

66 Shin–Bom, Lee, ‘South Korea: Dissent From Abroad’, Third World Quarterly, 9 01 1987 , p. 140 Google Scholar.

67 Chehabi, Houchang, ‘Modernist Shi’ism and Politics, the Liberation Movement of Iran’, Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 1986, Vol. 1, p. 365 Google Scholar.

68 See Meisler, Stanley, ‘Thousands of Iran Exiles Wait, Hope, Plot in Paris’, Los Angeles Times, 5 08 1984 Google Scholar.