¹ See Gödel, Kurt, Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I (On formally undecidable propositions of mathematical principles and related systems I), 38 Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 173-198 (1931).Google Scholar

² By differentiating between the levels of object language and meta-language, Tarski had been able to solve paradox in formal logic; see Alfred Tarski, Grundlegung der wissenschaftlichen Semantik (The scientific foundation of semantics, 1936), in Alfred Tarski, Collected Papers II (Steven Givant & Ralph McKenzie (eds.) 259-268 (1986).Google Scholar

³ It is noteworthy that Kelsen proposed to avoid norm contradiction through norm hierarchy in 1934, 2 years before Tarski solved the problem of paradox in formal logic; see Hans Kelsen, Reine Rechtslehre (Pure Theory of Law) 62 ff. (1934).Google Scholar

⁴ See Robert Alexy, Theorie der Grundrechte (Theory of Fundamental Rights, 1985).Google Scholar

⁵ See Hans-Jürgen Papier, Der Schutz der Menschenwürde – Auswirkungen auf die rechtliche Praxis (The protection of human dignity – impact on legal practice) National Taiwan University Lecture (2011).Google Scholar

⁶ Although the General Assembly adopted Resolution 66/253 on 15 February 2012, within this resolution, the UN “strongly condemned” continued widespread and systematic human rights violations by the Syrian authorities’ on one hand, whilst calling for all sides to cease bloodshed on the other. It thus reflects the problem of the need for differentiation between the dual notions of prosecution/state terror vs. terror/ resistance. However, this resolution is non-binding; a legally binding condemnation of said ‘human rights violations by the Syrian authorities’ was rejected in the UN Security Council, due to the double veto by Russia and China on 5 October 2011, and on 4 February 2012; see i.e. United Nations Security Council, 6711^th Meeting, UN S/PV.6711, available online at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/PV.6711 (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁷ See Werner Maihofer, Naturrecht oder Rechtspositivismus? (Natural law or legal positivism?, 1972).Google Scholar

⁸ After the Weimar Republic had not been able to effectively defend herself, the German emigrant Karl Loewenstein (see Karl Loewenstein, Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, in 31 American Political Science Review 417-433, 638-658, 5 BVerfG 85 (1937)) was the first to call for a “militant democracy,” this concept of democratic theory was in part implemented in the German Basic Law (see Art. 79 III, Art 20 I, II, Art. 9 II, Art. 18, Art. 21 II; the concept was later vindicated by the German Constitutional Court. For more information, see Andreas Klump, Freiheit den Feinden der Freiheit? (Freedom of the enemies of freedom?), available online at: http://www.extremismus.com/texte/streitbar.htm (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁹ See i.e. Schnapp, Friedrich, Art. 20, Rn. 79, in Grundgesetz Kommentar (Basic Law Comment, Ingo Münch, Philip Kunig (eds.), 6^th ed., 2012.Google Scholar

¹⁰ On the paradox of this constitutional provision, see Karl-Peter Sommermann, Art. 20 Abs.4, Rn. 339, in Kommentar zum Grundgesetz (Comment on Basic Law) (Hermann Mangoldt, Friedrich Klein (eds.), 2^nd ed., 2010).Google Scholar

¹¹ In this respect, see i.e. Scholz on constitutional limits to political forms of strike; Rupert Scholz, § 151, Rn. 109, in Josef Isensee & Paul Kirchhof, Handbuch des Staatsrechts, Vol. VI (Handbook of Political Rights, Vol. VI, 2^nd ed., 2001); similarly, see Karl-Peter Sommermann, Art. 20, Rn. 356f, in Kommentar zum Grundgesetz (Comment on Basic Law) (Hermann Mangoldt, Friedrich Klein (eds.), 2^nd ed., 2010).Google Scholar

¹² See Schnapp, Friedrich, Art. 20, Rn. 82, in Grundgesetz Kommentar (Basic Law Comment, Ingo Münch, Philip Kunig (eds.), 6^th ed., 2012).Google Scholar

¹³ In order to have a constitutional right to resistance, the German Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) insists upon all other remedies being exhausted (5 BVerfGE 85 (377)), in other words, as long as a right to demonstration exists, there are other remedies, and therefore it is no situation of resistance against state power; further on this, see Karl-Peter Sommermann, Art. 20 Abs.4, Rn. 348, in Kommentar zum Grundgesetz (Comment on Basic Law) (Hermann Mangoldt, Friedrich Klein (eds.), 2^nd ed., 2010).Google Scholar

¹⁴ The Pirate Party (Piraten Partei) first entered a local parliament (Berlin) on 18 September 2011. Since then, they habve entered other regional parliaments in Saarland (25 March 2012), Schleswig-Holstein (6 May 2012) and Nordthrhein-Westfalia (13 May 2012).Google Scholar

¹⁵ One of the protesters of an anti-Shah demonstration was Benno Ohnesorg, who was shot dead by a police officer on 2 June 1967. One outspoken leader of the German student (protest) movement was critically injured by two shots to his head on 11. April 1968. These instances of state violence were answered by an increase in violence on behalf of the protest movement. The first incident that later was interpreted as the starting point of German post-war terrorism is the arson attack on 2 Frankfurt shopping malls on 2/3 August 1968. For links between the German protest movement and the growing problem of German terrorism in the late 1960s, see Rudolf Walther, Ein direkter Weg von der Spassguerilla zum Terrorismus?,Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Deutsche Geschichte nach 1945 (2008), available online at: http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/deutsche-geschichte-nach-1945/68er-bewegung/51795/spassguerilla-terrorismus?p=0 (last accessed: 31 Augsut 2012); Die 68er Bewegung, Interview with Gerd Langguth, Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Deutsche Geschichte nach 1945 (2007), available online at: http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/deutsche-geschichte-nach-1945/geschichte-der-raf/49198/die-68er-bewegung?p=2 (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

¹⁶ The last remnants of the most important German terrorist group – the so-scalled RAF (Red Amy Faction) -announced itself dissolved on 20 April 1998, almost exactly 30 years after the attempted assassination of Rudi Dutschke and the arson attacks at Frankfurt. See Wolfgang Kraushaar, Das Ende der RAFBundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Deutsche Geschichte nach 1945, http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/deutsche-geschichte-nach-1945/geschichte-der-raf/49302/das-ende-der-raf (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

¹⁷ See ABl EG Nr. L 164, at 3; for a more comprehensive illustration of the subject matter, see Javier Argomaniz, The EU and Counter-Terrorism – Politics, Polity and Policies after 9/11 (2011).Google Scholar

¹⁸ BGBl I, 739 (30 August 1951).Google Scholar

¹⁹ BGBl I, 593 (5 August 1964).Google Scholar

²⁰ See Fischer, Thomas, § 129a, Rn 5, in Strafgesetzbuch und Nebengesetze (Penal code and by-laws, 58^th ed., 2011).Google Scholar

²¹ Some authors explicitly explain the nature of § 129a StGB as being an aggravated form of crime (Qualifikationstatbestand) when compared to § 129 StGB; see Matthias Krauß, § 129a Rn. 2, in Strafgesetzbuch -Leipziger Kommentar (Penal code— Leipzig commentary, Heinrich Wilhelm Laufhütte, Ruth Rissing-van Saan & Klaus Tiedemann (eds.), 2009).Google Scholar

²² See Schäfer, Jürgen, § 129a, Rn. 2, 57f, Münchener Kommentar zum Strafgesetzbuch (Munich Commentary on the Criminal Code, Wolfgang Joecks, Klaus Miebach (eds.), 2012).Google Scholar

²³ Criticizing this header with its focus on political motivations as being misleading, see Thomas Fischer, § 129a, Rn 2, in Strafgesetzbuch und Nebengesetze (Penal code and by-laws, 58^th ed., 2011).Google Scholar

²⁴ BGBl I, 2181 (18 August 1976).Google Scholar

²⁵ For a distinction of member and supporter in context of § 129b StGB that follows parallel lines of argumentation but asks for international involvement, see Christoph Safferling & Timo Ide, Prosecuting Terrorism Financing in Germany: Bundesgerichtshof (German Federal Court of Justice), Judgment of 14 August 2009 – 3 StR 552/08, in 11 Germ. L. J. 1296 ff. (2010), available online at: http://www.germanlawjournal.com/index.php?pageID=11&artID=1298 (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

²⁶ BGBl I, 373 (28 March 1980); BGBl I, 393 (13 April 1986).Google Scholar

²⁷ BGBl I, 2566 (19 December 1986).Google Scholar

²⁸ BGBl I, 164 (26 January 1998).Google Scholar

²⁹ BGBl. I, 2254 (26 June 2002).Google Scholar

³⁰ BGBl I, 3390 (22 August 2002).Google Scholar

³¹ BGBl I, 2836 (28 December 2003).Google Scholar

³² In order to implement changes decided by the European Council, the actual amendments of § 129a StGB were promulgated by the German legislature within the ‘Gesetz zur Umsetzung des Rahmenbeschlusses des Rates vom 13. Juni 2002 zur Terrorismusbekämpfung', which is a referral to the ‘Council Decision on the implementation of specific measures for police and judicial cooperation to combat terrorism’; see BGBl I, 2836 (22 December 2003), compare ABl EG Nr. L 164, at 3.Google Scholar

³³ For a comparative study upon changes and statistical features of changes within German Criminal Law, see (Georg Gesk), (The Balance between Legal Stability and Socio-Political Change – German Criminal Law after more than a Century of Legislative Policy), Research Paper, NSC 90-2414-H-002-009 (2002).Google Scholar

³⁴ In order to give just one example of the conflict of criminal law on one hand and behavior that is subjectively perceived as being committed in good faith on the other hand, we may have a look at a special form of demonstration: civil disobedience accounts as a crime as long as an action violates values that are protected by criminal law. In all those cases, the prosecutor is not interested in matters of faith, but in holding up social order. This ‘blindness’ towards political or religious commitment is no suppression and no violation of fundamental human rights as long as there are legal ways to address related issues. For critique of and limits to civil obedience as a realization of the right to resistance, see Josef Isensee, § 13, Rn. 84, in, Handbuch des Staatsrechts Vol. I (Handbook of Political rights, Vol. I, Josef Isensee & Paul Kirchhof (eds.), 1995).Google Scholar

³⁵ Since criminal prosecution depends upon having reasonable evidence for suspecting somebody has committed a crime, any case that is related to abroad will pose natural barriers for prosecuting suspects on the very fact that much of criminal evidence is located out of reach of national law enforcement agencies. In other words, since national law enforcement agencies are in lack of reasonable evidence, not even an investigation can be opened. Therefore transfer of criminal evidence, cross boundary definitions of crimes, as well as cross boundary cooperation of law enforcement agencies are essential in alleviating respective dangers. For a discussion of related issues, see Davide Casale, EU Institutional and Legal Counter-terrorism Framework, in 1(1) Defence Against Terrorism Review 49 ff. (2008).Google Scholar

³⁶ Therefore, §§ 5 and 6 StGB only speak of the applicability of German Criminal Law on actions committed abroad and directed against national legal values (§ 5) or violating internationally recognized universal values (§ 6). However, since the UN has not succeeded in signing and enacting an international covenant on counter terrorism, applicability of § 6 (9) is very limited.Google Scholar

³⁷ BGBl I, 3390 (22 August 2002).Google Scholar

³⁸ See in this volume, the contribution of Bernhard Kretschmer, Criminal Involvement in Terrorist Associations — Classification and Fundamental Principles of the German Criminal Code Section 129a StGB, 13(9) Germ. L.J. (2012).Google Scholar

³⁹ It is noteworthy that German criminal law has an important complement to §129b StGB, the so-called ‘Völkerstrafgesetzbuch’ (Law on Crimes against Peoples). Although the defendants Ignace Murwanashyaka and Straton Musoni had conspired and participated in mass murder and therefore qualified under § 129b I as members of a terrorist organization committing serious crimes, they were indicted according to the Law on crimes against peoples; concerning the law on crimes against people, see in general, Christoph Safferling, Internationales Strafrecht (International criminal law, 319 ff. (2011); concerning the indictment of Ignace Murwanashyaka and Straton Mussoni, see http://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2011-05/ruanda-kriegsverbrecher- (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Tunisia, as well as Syria, are both states where recent large scale uprisings against a corrupt and at times undemocratic regime resulted in the over through of the existing regime and a subsequent attempt at organizing a more democratic form of government. In both cases, European governments were first relatively slow in their reaction. However, in the case of Libya they later even actively sought UN and NATO support for resistance against a Libyan regime that tried to militarily crush peaceful demonstrators and their grassroots organizations, thus not only respecting armed resistance as being a legal form of getting rid of an oppressive regime, but actively supporting it; see i.e. UN Security Council, Operation Unified Protector: Protection of civilians and civilian-populated areas & enforcement of the No-Fly Zone – October 2011, 8 UN Security Council Resolution 1973, §§ 4 (2011), available at: http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_10/20111005_111005-factsheet_protection_civilians.pdf (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴¹ While isolated media reports on the US facilitating arms smuggling into Syria are hard to verify, US Secretary of State did confirm to finance communications equipment of the Free Syrian Army, thus directly supporting armed opposition against violent oppression of dissent by the Syrian government. In such a situation, it might be counterproductive if Germany treats organizing of violent resistance in Syria being equivalent to organizing a terrorist group; see Reena Ninan, Hillary Clinton Says Syrian President Assad ‘Must Go,’ abc news (1 April 2012), see http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/secretary-hillary-clinton-syrian-president-assad/story?id=16049737#.T_DGH_W6odQ (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴² Concerning non-violent action in Syria and state repression, see i.e. Al Jazeera and agencies, Fresh violence hits Syrian towns, Al Jazeera (30 April 2011), available online at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114309234489989.html (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴³ The Syrian National Council was formed on 23 August 2011, in Istanbul as an umbrella organization of most Syrian opposition groups; see i.e. Opposition unite behind Syrian National Council, BBC News (28 March 2012), available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17533651 (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ For adoption of the so-called Annan peace initative, see UN 2042 (2012); for UN assessment after the failing of this plan on the ground, see the report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force of 5 June 2012 (S/2012/403).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ For parallel application of both West and East German law in one case (and therefore the vindication that East German law had been recognized as law with legitimate binding force), see in general, Klaus Marxen & Gerhard Werle, Gewalttaten an der deutsch-deutschen Grenze (Violence in German-German border), Vol. 2-1 XXXVII ff. (2002); for application in a concrete case, see i.e. LG Berlin (527) 2 Js 26/90 Ks (10/92), in Klaus Marxen & Gerhard Werle, Gewalttaten an der deutsch-deutschen Grenze Vol 2-2 (Violence in German-German border) 568, 573ff. (2002).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Syria agreed to the Arab League deploring a monitoring mission to Syria on 19 December 2011 and suspended this mission on 29 January 2012, due ‘to the critical deterioration of the situation’. See BBC News Middle East, Syria FM: We weren't playing for time, available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16246286 (19 December 2011), and Arab League halts Syria mission, available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16778534 (28 January 2012), BBC news, available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16778534 (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany), available online: http://www.bundestag.de/bundestag/aufgaben/rechtsgrundlagen/grundgesetz/index.html (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ See Strafgesetzbuch (German Criminal Code), available online at: http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/stgb/ (last accessed: 31 August 2012).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, supra note 47.Google Scholar