¹ For a few eminent samples between law and sociology, see Joppke, Christian, Citizenship and Immigration (2010); Gerald Neuman, Strangers to the Constitution: Immigrants, Borders and Fundamental law (1996); T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Semblances of Sovereignty (2002).Google Scholar

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⁴ See id. at 131.Google Scholar

⁵ Bernhard Giesen, National Identity and Citizenship: The Cases of Germany and France, in European Citizenship Between National Legacies and Postnational Projects 41 (Klaus Eder & Bernard Giesen eds., 2001).Google Scholar

⁶ Michel Rosenfeld, Constitutional identity, in Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional law 757 (Michel Rosenfeld & András Sajó eds., 2012) [hereinafter Rosenfeld, OUP]. See also Gary Jeffrey Jacobsohn, Constitutional Identity 7 (2010), arguing that the “constitution acquires an identity through experience” and “identity emerges dialogically”.Google Scholar

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⁹ See Rosenfeld, Michel, The Identity of the Constitutional Subject: Selfhood, Citizenship, Culture and Community 12, 26 (2010) [hereinafter Rosenfeld, The Identity].Google Scholar

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²⁵ Id. at 87.Google Scholar

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³² About 27 million Italians left between 1876 and 1988. Of these, 12–14 million never returned. See Golini, Antonio & Amato, Flavia, Uno Sguardo a un Secolo e Mezzo di Emigrazione Italiana, in Storia dell'Emigrazione Italiana 45, 48 (Piero Bevilacqua et al. eds., 2001); see also Zincone, Giovanna & Basili, Marzia, Country Report: Italy, EUDO Citizenship Observatory 1, 6 (2013), http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/CountryReports/Italy.pdf.Google Scholar

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⁴² The resident foreign population increased from 648,000 in 1991, to 1.3 million in 2002 to 5 million in 2016. Italian National Institute for Statistics, Population in Italy, ISTAT (Jun. 2, 2016), https://www.istat.it/en/files/2017/06/2.pdf. See also Pastore, supra note 33, at 28.Google Scholar

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⁴⁹ See id. art. 3, para. 4.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See, e.g. id. art. 10, art. 12.Google Scholar

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⁵² See id. art. 2.Google Scholar

⁵³ Art. 3, par. 3 also includes among the objectives of immigration policy the one of favoring the reintegration of migrants in the countries of origin.Google Scholar

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But see Corte Costituzionale, 15 Novembre 1967, n.120, Racc. uff. corte. cost. 1967 (It.) (stating that the principle of equality under art. 3 should apply to foreigners as it is a fundamental liberty).Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ It remains “eclectic” in this respect. See Mathias Koenig-Archibugi, National and European Citizenship: The Italian Case in Historical Perspective, 7 (1) Citizenship Stud. 85, 98 (2003).Google Scholar

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⁶³ See Dauvergne, Catherine, The New Politics of Immigration and the End of Settler Societies (2016).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Id. at 11.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Immigration Act 1869, S.C. 1869, c. 10 (Can.).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ David Fitzgerald & David Cook-Martin, Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas (2014).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ On the growth imperative, see Ninette Kelley & M.J. Trebilcock, The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy 12 (2d ed. 2010); Triadafilos Triadafilopoulos, Becoming Multicultural: Immigration and the Politics of Membership in Canada and Germany 2–5 (2013).; Dauvergne, supra note 63. But see id. Google Scholar

⁶⁸ See Dauvergne, supra note 63, at 19.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, S.C. 2001, c. 27 (Can.).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Note that these types of individual behaviors were already prohibited through other means—this was a rhetorical statement.Google Scholar

⁷¹ See Adams, Eric M., Canadian Constitutional Identities, 38 (2) Dalhousie L.J. 311, 333 (2015). (“[I]n 1946, Canada enacted its first Canadian Citizenship Act, as an expression of its growing sense of national distinctiveness and identity.”).Google Scholar

⁷² Citizenship Act, R.S.C 1985, ch. C-29, § 5 (Can.).Google Scholar

⁷³ Statistics Canada, Obtaining Canadian Citizenship (2011), http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011003_1-eng.cfm (last visited Oct. 24, 2017).Google Scholar

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⁷⁵ The former Minister of Citizenship & Immigration and the former Prime Minister both made public statements about upholding the Canadian values of openness and transparency. Former Minister Jason Kenney characterized citizenship as “a quintessentially public act” that must be taken openly. See Smith, Joanna, Muslim Women Must Show Face to Become Canadian Citizens, Toronto Star (Dec. 12, 2012), http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2011/12/12/muslim_women_must_show_face_to_become_canadian_citizens (last visited Oct. 24, 2017) (“[The ban was] … a matter of deep principle that goes to the heart of our identity and our values of openness and equality.”); Morgan Lowrie, Harper Says Ottawa Will Appeal Ruling Allowing Veil During Citizenship Oath, Globe and Mail (Feb. 12, 2015), https://beta.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/harper-says-ottawa-will-appeal-ruling-allowing-veil-during-citizenship-oath/article22979142/?ref=http://www.theglobeandmail.com; (providing a statement by Prime Minister Stephen Harper that “[t]his is a society that is transparent, open and where people are equal”).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ See Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act, S.C. 2014, ch. 22, § 10 (Can.).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (2003).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Dauvergne, supra note 63, at 20. The new online Express Entry system, closely tied to the labor market, reconfigures the points system into its threshold qualifications.Google Scholar

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⁸⁰ See Union Colliery Co. of British Columbia, Ltd. et al. v. John Bryden [1899] UKPC 58, [1899] AC 580 (PC) (appeal taken from B.C.); see also Ryder, Bruce, Racism and the Constitution: The Constitutional Fate of British Columbia Anti-Asian Immigration Legislation, 1884–1909, 29 Osgoode Hall L. J. 621 (1991). Because provincial legislation was discriminatory against Chinese laborers, placing them under federal jurisdiction improved their condition. This was specifically accomplished by understanding them to have the full rights of citizenship.Google Scholar

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⁸³ The United States has had for a longer time an immigrant (EB5) and non-immigrant (E) investor scheme. The US policy in this sense predates the wave of programs adopted as part of the “race for talent.” See, e.g., Strumia, Francesca, New Generation Skilled Migration Policies and the Changing Fabric of Membership: Talent as Output and the Headhunting State, Investment Migration Council, Working Paper 2016/4 (2016); Ayelet Shachar, Picking Winners: Olympic Citizenship and the Global Race for Talent, 120 Yale L. J. 2088 (2011).Google Scholar

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⁸⁵ Francesca Strumia has been involved in advising the Italian Ministry of Economic Development on a pro bono basis on the startup visa policy.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ See L. n. 221/2012 (It.).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ See Act, Immigration, supra note 48, art. 26. For further implementation measures in respect of Italian self-employment visas, see D.P.R. n. 394/1999 (It.), art. 39.Google Scholar

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⁹⁰ Decisions are made within thirty days of submission, compared with the self-employment visa decisions which are made within 120 days. See Act, Immigration, supra note 48, art. 26.Google Scholar

⁹¹ See Italia Startup Visa Guidelines, supra note 89.Google Scholar

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⁹⁵ Id. at 3.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ There is no exception for startup visa holders to the requirement of art. 4bis of the Immigration Act.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Italia Startup Visa Guidelines, supra note 89, at 4.Google Scholar

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⁹⁹ Andre Garber & Kailin Che, Canada's StartUp Visa Program for Entrepreneurs, CABI (Oct. 28, 2016), http://www.cabi.ca/articles/canadas-startup-visa-program-for-entrepreneurs; Harjit Grewal, Canada Start Up Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁰ Ministerial Instructions Respecting the Startup Business Class (May 23, 2015) C. Gaz, Part I, 149/21, http://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2015/2015-05-23/pdf/g1-14921.pdf, at sch. 1-3.Google Scholar

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¹⁰² See Robinson, Renee, The Startup Visa Program: Wooing International Technology Entrepreneurs, Canadian Media Fund Blog (Jul. 18, 2013), http://trends.cmf-fmc.ca/blog/the-startup-visa-program-wooing-international-technology-entrepreneurs.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁴ Citizenship & Immigration Canada, The Canadian Advantage (2015), http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/startup-entrepreneurs-eng.pdf; Citizenship & Immigration Canada, Canada Wants Entrepreneurs! (2015), http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/entrepreneurs.asp.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁶ 1 23 visas have actually been issued, as some beneficiaries have changed their plans – but the numbers have been increasing constantly in any case. See Italian Ministry of Economic Development, Italia Startup Visa & Hub—1st Quarterly Report 2017 4 (2017).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ The startup visa pilot is in its fourth year and it remains to be seen whether the government will renew it.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Startup Visa Continues to Grow, Government of Canada (May 5, 2016), https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/2016/05/startup-visa-continues-to-grow.html (last visited Oct. 24, 2017).Google Scholar

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