1 Heard, Andrew, Human Rights: Chimeras in Sheep's Clothing?, Simon Fraser Univ. Online (1997), http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/intro.html.Google Scholar

2 See Donnelly, Jack, Human Rights: A New Standard of Civilization?, 74 Int'l Aff. 1, 1 (1998).Google Scholar

3 See Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, Human Rights and International Trade law: Defining and Connecting the Two Fields, in Human Rights and International Trade 29, 31–34 (Thomas Cottier, Joost Pauwelyn & Elisabeth Bürgi eds., 2005) (attempting to prove that, and explain how, the values informing human rights and the general principles of international trade are similar); GAO, Pengcheng, Rethinking the Relationship Between the WTO and International Human Rights, 8 Rich. J. of Global L. & Bus. 397, 398–99 (2009) (arguing that the value of non-discrimination underlie both regimes); Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, The WTO Constitution and Human Rights, 3 J. Int'l Econ. L. 19, 22–23 (2000); Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Time for a United Nations ‘Global Compact’ for Integrating Human Rights into the Law of Worldwide Organizations: Lessons from European Integration, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 621, 621 (2002) [hereinafter Petersmann, Lessons from European Integration]; Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Human Rights, International Economic law and Constitutional Justice: A Rejoinder, 19 Eur. J. Int'l L. 955, 955 (2008) [hereinafter Petersmann, A Rejoinder]. Google Scholar

4 See Alston, Philip, Resisting the Merger and Acquisition of Human Rights by Trade Law: A Reply to Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 815, 815 (2002); Robert Howse & Makau Mutua, Protecting Human Rights in a Global Economy: Challenges for the World Trade Organization, in Human Rights in Development: Yearbook 1999/2000 51, 51 (Hugo Stokke & Arne Tostensen eds., The Millennium Ed. 2001); Robert Howse, Human Rights in the WTO: Whose Rights, What Humanity? Comment on Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 651, 651 (2002); Frank J. Garcia, Symposium: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 50 and the Challenge of Global Markets: Trading Away the Human Rights Principle, 25 Brook. J. Int'l L. 51, 51 (1999); Jagdish Bhagwati, Afterword: The Question of Linkage, 96 Am. J. Int'l L. 126, 126 (2002); Andrew T.F. Lang, Re-Thinking Trade and Human Rights, 15 Tul. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 335, 335 (2007).Google Scholar

5 See Seymour, Dan & Pincus, Jonathan, Human Rights and Economics: The Conceptual Basis for their Complementarity, 26 Dev. Pol'y Rev. 387, 387–89 (2008) (pointing out that they have differences in their theoretical approach and even in their lexicon).Google Scholar

6 See General Agreement on Tariffs And Trade, preamble, Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11, 55 U.N.T.S. 194 [hereinafter GATT]; Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Apr. 15, 1994, 1867 U.N.T.S. 154 [hereinafter the Marrakesh Agreement], available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm. For works capturing the gist of these debates, see Peter Van Den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials 19–22 (2005); Alan O. Sykes, International Trade and Human Rights: An Economic Perspective, in International Trade and HUMAN Rights: Foundations AND Conceptual Issues 69, 69–72 (Frederick M. Abbott, Christine Breining-Kaufmann & Thomas Cottier eds., 2006); Graham Dunkley, Free Trade: Myths, Reality and Alternatives 12–17, passim (2004) (providing a summary of critiques and alternative paradigms).Google Scholar

7 See Seymour, & Pincus, , supra note Error! Bookmark not defined., at 389–92 (stating that economics’ focus on utility does not give much attention to moral rectitude of economic decisions); Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street 36, 122–29 (2009) (noting that from the perspective of economics, rational human action—the assumption of “homo economicus”— leads to the practical principles of “maximizing shareholder value” and maximizing profits which take precedence over all other considerations including moral ones, based upon economic grounds); William Lazonick & Mary O'Sullivan, Maximizing Shareholder Value: A New Ideology for Corporate Governance, 29 Econ. & Soc'y 13, 13 (2000); Herbert Gintis & Rakesh Khurana, Corporate Honesty and Business Education: A Behavioral Model, in Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Values in the Economy 300, 300 (Paul J. Zak ed., 2008); David Crowther & Lez Rayman-Bacchus, Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility (2004) (providing an alternative model to this view that emphasizes corporate social responsibility and “stakeholder,'” not “shareholder,” value); Sybille Sachs & Edwin Rühli, Stakeholders Matter: A New Paradigm for Strategy in Society (2011); Joseph F. Johnston, Jr., Natural Law and the Fiduciary Duties of Business Managers, in Business and Religion: A Clash of Civilizations? 279, 292–95 (Nicholas Capaldi ed., 2005); David E. Hawkins, Corporate Social Responsibility: Balancing Tomorrow's Sustainability and Today's Profitability (2006) (providing the environmental aspect of the same view).Google Scholar

8 See generally Gerhard Ernst & Jan-Christoph Heilinger, The Philosophy of Human Rights (2012).Google Scholar

9 See generally Sykes, supra note 6, at 74–76; JoonBeom Pae, Sovereignty, Power, and Human Rights Treaties: An Economic Analysis, 5 Nw. J. Int'l Hum. Rts. 71, 71 (2006); Tarek F. Maassarani, WTO-GATT, Economic Growth, and the Human Rights Trade-Off, 28 Envtl. L. & Pol'y J. 269, 269 (2005).Google Scholar

10 We first need to clarify a set of related words used in relation to sanctions that may cause confusion if left for the reader to define at will. Literature on the subject use different, but related, words such as “embargo,” “sanction,” “action,” “trade measures,” “trade restrictions,” “trade related action,” “human rights related sanctions,” and similar words and expressions to describe one common phenomenon. In the context of this comment these usages are meant to describe any actions or steps taken by members of the WTO which might conflict with their obligations under the agreements of the WTO. For different usages of the word, see Gudrun Monika Zagel, WTO & Human Rights: Examining Linkages and Suggesting Convergence 6–9 (Int'l Dev. L. Org., Voices of Dev. Jurists Paper Ser. Vol. 2, No. 2, 2005), available at http://www.worldtradelaw.net/articles/zagelhumanrights.pdf; Sarah H. Cleveland, Human Rights Sanctions and International Trade: A Theory of Compatibility, 5 J. Int'l Econ. L. 133, 189 (2002); Carlos Manuel Vászquez, Trade Sanctions and Human Rights—Past, Present, and Future, 6 J. Int'l Econ. L. 797 passim (2003) (distinguishing between general trade sanctions and tailored sanctions).Google Scholar

11 See Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 25(1), G.A. Res 217 (III) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/217(III) (Dec. 10, 1948) [hereinafter UDHR] (stating “[e]veryone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family”); World Health Organization, Constitution of the World Health Organization, preamble, Official Record World Health Org. 2, 100 (July 22, 1946), available at http://apps.who.int/gb/bd/PDF/bd47/EN/constitution-en.pdf (“The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being. …”); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 12(1), G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/2200A(XXI) (Jan. 3, 1976); Organization of American States, American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, art. XI (1948); The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, art. 5(e), (iv), G.A. Res. 2106 (XX) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/2106(XX) (Dec. 21, 1965); Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, art. 11.1(f), G.A. Res. 34/180, 12, U.N. Doc. A/RES/34/180 (Dec. 18, 1979); The Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 17, 23–25, 32, G.A. Res. 44/25, U.N. Doc. A/RES/44/25 (Nov. 20, 1989); African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 16, June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3, 21 I.L.M. 58 (“1. Every individual shall have the right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and mental health. 2. States Parties to the present Charter shall take the necessary measures to protect the health of their people and to ensure that they receive medical attention when they are sick.”); Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson, Realizing the Right to Health (2009); Eleanor D. Kinney, The International Human Right to Health: What Does This Mean for Our Nation and World?, 34 Ind. L. Rev. 1457, 1457 (2001); Steven D. Jamar, The International Human Right to Health, 22 S.U. L. Rev. 1, 1 (1994–1995); Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson, Realizing the Right to Health (2009).Google Scholar

12 See General Comment No. 14, Comm'n on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Apr. 25, 2000–May 12, 2000, E/C.12/2000/4, 22 Sess. (Aug. 11, 2000); African Comm'n on Human and Peoples’ Rights [ACmHPR], Soc. & Econ. Rights Action Ctr. & the Ctr. for Econ. & Soc. Rights v. Nigeria, Comm. 155/96, Oct. 2001, 15th AAR 2001–2002 Annex V, (2001); Resolution on Access to Health and Needed Medicines in Africa, African Comm'n on Human and Peoples’ Rights Res. 44/141 (Nov. 24, 2008); D v. United Kingdom, 24 Eur. Ct. H.R. at 423 (1997); Ostra v. Spain, 303-C Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1994). For a brief review of both international and constitutional jurisprudence on the right to health, see Iain Byrne, Enforcing the Right to Health: Innovative Lessons from Domestic Courts, in Realizing the Right to Health 525, 525 (Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson eds., 2009); Vincent Chetail & Gilles Giacca, Who Cares? The Right to Health of Migrants, in Realizing the Right to Health 224, 224 (Andrew Clapham & Mary Robinson eds., 2009).Google Scholar

13 See Appellate Body Report, European Communities—Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (Jan. 16, 1998) (adopted Feb. 13, 1998); Appellate Body Report, European Communities—Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos, WT/DS135/AB/R, (Mar. 12, 2001) (adopted Apr. 5, 2001); Tracey Epps, International Trade and Health Protection: A Critical Assessment of the WTO's SPS Agreement 10–15; Frederick M. Abbott, Editorial. The Enduring Enigma of TRIPS: A Challenge for the World Economic System, 1 J. Int'l Econ. L. 497, 501, 505 (2008).Google Scholar

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63 Robinson, Mary, The Fifth Annual Grotius Lecture Shaping Globalization: The Role of Human Rights, 19 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 1, 2 (2003).Google Scholar