¹ Draft Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, adopted by consensus by the European Convention on 13 June and 10 July 2003, submitted to the President of the European Council in Rome on 18 July 2003.Google Scholar

² Mestmäcker, E.-J., On the Legitimacy of European Law, 58 Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht 615, 631 (1994).Google Scholar

³ Treaty of Amsterdam Amending the Treaty on European Union, the Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Certain Related Acts, Oct. 2, 1997, 1997 O.J. (C 340) 1.Google Scholar

⁴ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union Art. 6(1), 1997 O.J. (C 340) 145 [hereinafter TEU].Google Scholar

⁵ Treaty Establishing the European Constitution, Dec. 16, 2004, 2004 O.J. (C 310) 1 [hereinafter CT].Google Scholar

⁶ CT art. I-46.Google Scholar

⁷ CT art. I-47.Google Scholar

⁸ See e.g. Menéndez, A.J., Between Laeken and the Deep Blue Sea: An Assessment of the Draft Constitutional Treaty from a Deliberative-Democratic Standpoint, 11 Eur. Pub. L. 105, 121 (2005); J.H.H. Weiler, European Democracy and Its Critics: Polity and System, in The Constitution of Europe 264 (J.H.H. Weiler ed., 1999); G. Lübbe-Wolff, Europäisches und nationales Verfassungsrecht, 60 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung Deutscher Staatsrechtslehrer 246, 255 (2001); H. Steinberger, Der Verfassungsstaat als Glied einer europäischen Gemeinschaft, 50 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung Deutscher Staatsrechtslehrer 9, 39 (1991); C. Gusy, Demokratiedefizite postnationaler Gemeinschaften unter Berücksichtigung der EU, 45 Zeitschrift für Politik 267, 271 (1998); F. Müller, Demokratie zwischen Staatsrecht und Weltrecht 127 (2003).Google Scholar

⁹ Bogdandy, A. v., Globalization and Europe: How to Square Democracy, Globalisation and International Law, 15 Eur. J. Int'l L. 885, 890 (2004).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Grimm, Exemplary D., Does Europe Need a Constitution?, 1 Eur. L. J. 282, 296 (1995).Google Scholar

¹¹ See Archibugi, Daniele, Cosmopolitical Democracy, in Debating Cosmopolitics 1, 8 (Daniele Archibugi ed., 2003).Google Scholar

¹² Isensee, J., Die alte Frage nach der Rechtfertigung des Staates, 54 Juristenzeitung 265, 274 (1999).Google Scholar

¹³ Id.; M. Kaufmann, Europäische Integration und Demokratieprinzip 262 (1997); Grimm, supra note 10, at 296.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Dworkin, R., Liberal Community, 77 Cal. L. Rev. 479, 498 (1989).Google Scholar

¹⁵ See Kadelbach, S., Union Citizenship, in Principles of European Constitutional Law (A. v. Bogandy & J. Bast eds. forthcoming 2005); see also J.H.H. Weiler, Does Europe need a Constitution? Demos, Telos and the German Maastricht Decision, 1 Eur. L. J. 219, 240 (1995).Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Haltern, U., Integration als Mythos, 45 Jahrbuch des öffentlichen Rechts 31, 52 (1997); H. Abromeit & T. Schmidt, Grenzprobleme der Demokratie: Konzeptionelle Überlegungen, in Regieren in entgrenzten Räumen 293, 306 (B. Kohler-Koch ed., 1998).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Mahlmann, M., Constitutional Identity and the Politics of Homogenity, 6 German L. J. 307, 316 (2005).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Dellavalle, S., Für einen normativen Begriff von Europa: Nationalstaat und europäische Einigung im Lichte der politischen Theorie, in Die europäische Option 237, 257 (A. v. Bogdandy ed., 1993).Google Scholar

¹⁹ However, the capability of consent is sufficient, actual consent not necessary.Google Scholar

²⁰ Bogdandy, A. v., Constitutional Pinciples, in Principles of European Constitutional Law (A. v. Bogandy & Bast eds. forthcoming 2005).Google Scholar

²¹ Immanuel Kant, Metaphysics of Morals 30 (M. Gregor trans., 1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²² See, e.g. J. Nida- Rumelin, Uber Menschliche Freiheit (2005)Google Scholar

²³ See Peters, A., European Democracy after the 2003 Convention, 41 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 37, 43 (2004).Google Scholar

²⁴ Actually, CT art. 45 seems at first glance not to be a very effective right, as it (only) guarantees the reception of “equal attention from [the Union's] institutions.” However the provision has to be read in its context. In the first half sentence the Union is obligated to observe the “principle of equality of its citizens.” Furthermore, the norm is superscribed with the title “Principle of Democratic Equality.” Therefore the headline has to be taken literally and the right of equality is to be interpreted broadly.Google Scholar

²⁵ Bogdandy, , supra note 20.Google Scholar

²⁶ See Böckenförde, E.-W., Demokratie als Verfassungsprinzip, in Handbuch des Staatsrechts, Vol. II, para. 24, no. 16 (3d ed., J. Isensee & P. Kirchhof eds., 2004).Google Scholar

²⁷ See Bogdandy, A.V., Das Leitbild der dualistischen Legitimation für die europäische Verfassungsentwicklung, 83 Kritische Vierteljahrsschrift 284 (2000) (on the strategy of double legitimisation).Google Scholar

²⁸ See Greven, M.T., Grenzen und politischer Raum, in Regieren in Entgrenzten Räumen 249, 255 (Kohler-Koch ed., 1998).Google Scholar

²⁹ Scharpf, F.W., Demokratietheorie zwischen Utopie und Anpassung 25 (1970).Google Scholar

³⁰ Held, D., Democracy and the New International Order, in Cosmopolitan Democracy: An Agenda for a New World Order 96, 99 (D. Held & D. Archibugi eds., 1995); Peters, supra note 23, at 40.Google Scholar

³¹ Petersen, N., Book Review, 64 Heidelberg J. of Int'l L. 851, 853 (2004).Google Scholar

³² Majone, G., Independence versus Accountability? Non-Majoritarian Institutions and Democratic Governance in Europe, in The European Yearbook of Comparative Government and Public Administration 117, 133 (J.J. Hesse & T. Toonen eds., 1994); W.H. Riker, Implications from the Disequilibrium of Majority Rule for the Study of Institutions, 74 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 432, 433 (1980).Google Scholar

³³ See Dehousse, R., Beyond representative democracy: constitutionalism in a polycentric polity, in European Constitutionalism Beyond the State 135, 155 (J.H.H. Weiler & Marlene Wind eds., 2003).Google Scholar

³⁴ Offe, Claus, Politische Legitimation durch Mehrheitsentscheidung?, in An den Grenzen der Mehrheitsdemokratie 150, 163 (B. Guggenberger & Claus Offe eds., 1984).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁵ See F.W. Scharpf, Governing in Europe: Effective and Democratic? (1999); M. Jachtenfuchs, Theoretical Perspectives on European Governance, 1 Eur. L. J. 115, 129 (1995).Google Scholar

³⁶ Petersen, N., Europäische Verfassung und europäische Legitimität, 64 Heidelberg J. Int'l L. 429, 456 (2004); see also M. Nettesheim, Decision-Making in the EU: Identity, Efficiency, and Democratic Legitimacy, 16 Eur. Rev. Pub. L. 197, 215 (2004).Google Scholar

³⁷ See A. Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy 4 (1965).Google Scholar

³⁸ Petersen, , supra note 36, at 461.Google Scholar

³⁹ See, Aaken, A. v., Rational Choice, in der Rechtwissenchaft 300 (2003).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Majone, G., Redistributive und sozialregulative Politik, in Europäische Integration 225, 242 (Markus Jachtenfuchs & Beate Kohler-Koch eds., 1996); W. Hoffmann-Riem, Gesetz und Gesetzesvorbehalt im Umbruch: Zur Qualitäts-Gewährleistung durch Normen, 130 Archiv des öffentlichen Rechts 5, 31 (2005).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Majone, , supra note 32, at 118.Google Scholar

⁴² Petersen, , supra note 36, at 462.Google Scholar

⁴³ See Tohidipur, in this volume.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ CT art. 30(3).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Menéndez, A.J., Between Laeken and the Deep Blue Sea: An Assessment of the Draft Constitutional Treaty from a Deliberative-Democratic Standpoint, 11 Eur. Pub. L. 105, 130 (2005) (there are still important fields remaining in which the Parliament is not equally involved in the legislative process).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Kadelbach, S., Bedingungen einer demokratischen Europäischen Union, 32 Europäische Grundrechte Zeitschrift (forthcoming 2005).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ The Treaty of Nice Amending the Treaty of the European Union, the Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Certain Related Acts, Mar. 10, 2001, 2001 O.J. (C 80) 1, 49 (the protocol on the englargement of the EU).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Lübbe-Wolff, G., Europäisches und nationales Verfassungsrecht, 60 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung Deutscher Staatsrechtslehrer 246, 248 (2001); C. Gusy, Demokratiedefizite postnationaler Gemeinschaften unter Berücksichtigung der EU, 45 Zeitschrift für Politik 267, 271 (1998); F. Müller, Demokratie zwischen Staatsrecht und Weltrecht 127, 269 (2003); J. Sack, Die Staatswerdung Europas – kaum eine Spur von Stern und Stunde, 44 Der Staat 67, 89 (2005).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Id.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See Part B I 2 of this piece.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Arndt, F., Distribution of Seats at the European Parliament: Democratic Political Equality, Protection of Diversity and the Enlargement Process, in The Emerging Constitutional Law of the European Union – German and Polish Perspectives 93, 102 (A. Bodnar, M. Kowlaski, K. Raible, & F. Schorkopf eds., 2003).Google Scholar

⁵² See Part C II 2 of this piece.Google Scholar

⁵³ See Dann, P., European Parliament and Executive Federalism: Approaching a Parliament in a Semi-Parliamentary Democracy, 9 Eur. L. J. 549, 571 (2003) (on the latter point); see also A. Peters, European Democracy after the 2003 Convention, 41 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 37, 46 (2004).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See Möllers, C., Pouvoir Constituant – Constitution – Constitutionalisation, in Principles of European Constitutional Law (A. v. Bogandy & Bast eds., forthcoming 2005); Sack, supra note 48, at 87 et seq.; M. Rau, Overcoming the Democratic Deficit in the European Union – the Neglected Role of Political Parties, in The Emerging Constitutional Law of the European Union – German and Polish Perspectives 133, 148 (A. Bodnar, M. Kowlaski, K. Raible, & F. Schorkopf eds., 2003).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See Menéndez, A.J., Between Laeken and the Deep Blue Sea: An Assessment of the Draft Constitutional Treaty from a Deliberative-Democratic Standpoint, 11 Eur. Pub. L. 105, 126 (2005) (the critique of Menéndez).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See Part B I 1 of this piece.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Peters, A., European Democracy after the 2003 Convention, 41 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 37, 54 (2004).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Id.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Buchanan, J.M. & Tullock, G., The Calculus of Consent 235 (1962).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁰ U.S. Const. art. I, § 3, cl. 1.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Held, D., Democracy and the New International Order, in Cosmopolitan Democracy: An Agenda for a New World Order 96, 99 (D. Held & D. Archibugi eds., 1995).Google Scholar

⁶² Kirchner, C., The Principle of Subsidiarity in the Treaty on European Union: A Critique from a Perspective of Constitutional Economics, 6 Tul. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 291, 303 (1998).Google Scholar

⁶³ M.G. Schmidt, Demokratietheorien 435 (3rd ed., 2000).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Follesdal, A., Subsidiarity and democratic deliberation, in Democracy in the European Union. Integration through deliberation? 85, 104 (E.O. Eriksen & J.E. Fossum eds., 2000).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Raworth, P., A Timid Step Forwards: Maastricht and the Democratisation of the European Community, 19 Eur. L. Rev. 16, 26 (1994).Google Scholar

⁶⁶ See Part B I 2 of this piece.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Dann, P., Parlamente im Exekutivföderalismus 21 (2004); P. Dann, The Political Institutions, in Principles of European Constitutional Law (A. v. Bogandy & J. Bast eds. forthcoming 2005).Google Scholar

⁶⁸ S. Kadelbach, Allegmeines Verwaltungscrecht unter Europäischem Einfluß 131 (1999).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Bitter, S., Zwangsmittel im Recht der Europäischen Union: Geteilte Rechtsmacht in Europa, in Europa als Raum der Freiheit, der Sicherheit und des Rechts (Hofmann & Kadelbach eds., forthcoming 2005).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Dann, P., The Political Institutions, in Principles of European Constitutional Law (A. v. Bogandy & J. Bast eds. forthcoming 2005).Google Scholar

⁷¹ Cananea, G. della, Procedures in the New (Draft) Constitution of the European Union, 16 European Rev. Pub. L. 221, 228 (2004); A.J. Menéndez, Between Laeken and the Deep Blue Sea: An Assessment of the Draft Constitutional Treaty from a Deliberative-Democratic Standpoint, 11 Eur. Pub. L. 105, 130 (2005);Google Scholar

⁷² See Weiler, J.H.H., Haltern, U., & Mayer, F.C., European Democracy and Its Critique, 18 West Eur. Pol. 4, 29 (1995).Google Scholar

⁷³ See Bast, J., The Constitutional Treaty as a Reflexive Constitution, in this volume.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Weiler, , supra note 72, at 29.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Trüe, in this volume; compare Bast, supra note 73 (in favour of an involvement of the EP in cases where unanimity in the Council is required – it is paradoxical to exclude the Parliament as main representative organ from the decisions having the highest political importance).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ See CT art. 26(2).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ CT art. 36(1).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ See Bryde, B.-O., Demokratisches Europa und Europäische Demokratie, in Europa und seine Verfassung, Festschrift Manfred Zuleeg 131, 138 (C. Gaitandes, S. Kadelbach, & G.C. Rodrigeuz Iglesias eds., 2005); see also B. Stråth, Methodological and Substantive Remarks on Myth, Memory and History in the Construction of a European Community, 6 German L. J. 255, 268 (2005); see also J.-L. Dewost, La Commission ou comment s'en débarrasser?, in L'Europe et le droit. Melanges en homage a Jean Boulouis 181, 190 (Charles Debbasch & Jean-Claude Venezia eds., 1991).Google Scholar

⁷⁹ CT art. 340, para. 2.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ See Menon, A. & Weatherill, S., Legitimacy, Accountability and Delegation in the European Union, in Accountability and Legitimacy in the European Union 113, 117 (A. Arnull & D. Wincott eds., 2002); see also A. Dashwood & A. Johnston, The Institutions of the Enlarged EU under the Regime of the Constitutional Treaty, 41 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 1481, 1486 (2004).Google Scholar

⁸¹ See Part B II 2 of this piece.Google Scholar

⁸² E.g. CT art. 313 (3), para. 3; CT art. 322 (1); CT arts. 325, 329, 420 (2), para. 2.Google Scholar

⁸³ CT art. 187 (3) lit. b, (4) lit. b.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ CT art. 264, lit. b.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ CT arts. 330 (1), 333, 357.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ See Craig, P.P., Democracy and Rule-making Within the EC: An Empirical and Normative Assessment, 3 Eur. L. J. 105, 118 (1997).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Majone, G., Regulatory Legitimacy, in Regulating Europe 284, 287 (G. Majone ed., 1996).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ A. Verhoeven, The European Union in Search of a Democratic and Constitutional Theory 238 (2002).Google Scholar

⁸⁹ See Lenaerts, K. & Verhoeven, A., Institutional Balance as a Guarantee for Democracy in EU Governance, in Good Governance in Europe's Integrated Market 35, 75 (C. Joerges & R. Dehousse eds., 2002).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Vos, E., The Rise of Committees, 3 Eur. L. J. 210, 228 (1997).Google Scholar

⁹¹ Dehousse, R., Beyond representative democracy: constitutionalism in a polycentric polity, in European Constitutionalism Beyond the State 135, 152 (J.H.H. Weiler & Marlene Wind eds., 2003).Google Scholar

⁹² Joerges, C. & Neyer, J., From Intergovernmental Bargaining to Deliberative Political Processes: The Constitutionalisation of Comitology, 3 European L. J. 273, 282 (1997).Google Scholar

⁹³ See Council Framework Comitology Decision 1999/468, 1999 O.J. (L 184) 23.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Dehousse, , supra note 91.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Vos, , supra note 90, at 218.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ See Cananea, G. della, Procedures in the New (Draft) Constitution of the European Union, 16 Eur. Rev. Pub. L. 221, 234 (2004).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ See Part C III of this piece.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ On the relationship between first and third part of the constitution, see J. Bast, supra note 73.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Id.Google Scholar