Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-sh8wx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-20T23:08:08.376Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Apologies, Regrets, and Reparations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2009

Stanley L. Engerman*
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0156, USA. E-mail: enge@troi.cc.rochester.edu

Abstract

The concept of reparations-payments made for damages inflicted by one individual upon another have long been regarded as appropriate social policy. It has only been in the 20th century that the concept has been broadened to deal with evils committed in earlier generations for which payments have been requested, the most discussed of these being the request for reparations for today’s blacks for suffering attributable to slavery that ended over one hundred years ago. Other examples include payments by Germany and other European nations for crimes committed in the Second World War. Starting about 1990, there have been frequent apologies for past and present crimes, which acknowledge wrongs committed but without any financial payment. Many nations, churches, and private groups have recently made such apologies, which have seemed to come politically acceptable.

Type
Focus: Slavery
Copyright
Copyright © Academia Europaea 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes and References

1.See New York Times August 14, 2005; Honolulu Star-Bulletin June 10, 2004.Google Scholar
2. For a survey see Harding, A. (1966) A Social History of English Law (Baltimore: Penguin Books), 1317, 366–367, 404–408, 414–416. See the description in Blackstone (1979), W. Blackstone (1979) Commentaries on the Laws of England, Volume III, Of Private Wrongs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) (first published 1768). The discussion by Aristotle is in his Nicomachean Ethics, Bk 5.Google Scholar
3.Costa, D. L. (1998) The Evolution of Retirement: An American Economic History, 1880–1990 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), pp. 196212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Oberly, J. W. (1990) Sixty Million Acres: American Veterans and the Public Lands before the Civil War (Kent: Kent State University Press).Google Scholar
5.Goldin, C. and Katz, L. F. (2008) The Race Between Education and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), Chapter 7.Google Scholar
6. See for example, U. B. Phillips (1915) Slave crime in Virginia, American Historical Review; US State Papers (1828) Indemnity for Slaves Carried Away by Great Britain in 1815, No. 441: Claims of Indemnity for Slaves and other Property Under the First Article of the Ghent Treaty (1828), No. 474: Opinion of the Attorney General on the Award of the Emperor of Russia under the Treaty of Ghent (1828), No. 486. In 1828 (No. 426) the US Attorney General asked ‘what is a just indemnification for a wrong? Is it the reparations or the one-half or two-thirds of the wrong? Is it anything less than reparation of the whole wrong?’ W. Brown (1965) The King’s Friends: The Composition and Motives of the American Loyalist Claimants (Providence: Brown University Press).Google Scholar
7. These payments, called adjustment assistance, have become a key provision in most recent tariff acts.Google Scholar
8.Machlup, F. (1964) International Payments, Debts, and Gold: Collected Essays by Fritz Machlup (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons), pp. 378–381. See also C. P. Kindleberger (1984) A Financial History of Western Europe (Boston: Allen and Unwin), pp. 239–250, 297–300, 420–424.Google Scholar
9. See Dupuy, E. R. and Dupuy, T. N. (1970) The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present (New York: Harper and Row), pp. 10081009.Google Scholar
10.Machlup, F. (1964) International Payments, Debts, and Gold: Collected Essays by Fritz Machlup (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons), pp. 381–386; C. P. Kindleberger (1984) A Financial History of Western Europe (Boston: Allen and Unwin), pp. 297–300, 420–421; G. Hardach (1977) The First World War, 1914–1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 246–248.Google Scholar
11. See Engerman, S. L. (2008) Emancipation schemes: different ways of ending slavery. In: E. del Lago and C. Katsari (eds) Slave Systems: Ancient and Modern (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 265282. The Dutch had discussed requiring freed slaves to pay cash to reimburse their former owners, but this wasn’t passed. Emmer comments that there were payments at times by the metropolis to their former colonies, at the end of colonial controls rather than the ending of slavery, which might be considered payment for colonial rule, if not slavery. The Dutch, when freeing Suriname in 1975, provided some cash payments. In addition the Dutch government expressed regrets and set up an institute to study slavery. P. C. Emmer (2006) The Dutch Slave Trade, 1500-1850 (New York: Berghahn), p. 152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12. See Merrill, W. M. (1971) The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison-Volume I, I Will be Heard!, 1822–1835 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), pp. 230233; W. L. Garrison (1852) Selections from the Writings and Speeches (Boston: R. F. Wallcut), pp. 66–71.Google Scholar
13.Cochin, A. (1863) The Results of Slavery (Boston: Walker, Wise), pp. 109110.Google Scholar
14.Wall Street Journal January 2, 2004; Rotberg, R. I. (1971) Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), pp. 6667, 86.Google Scholar
15.Gothamist June 13, 2007; New York Times March 29 2008; Huntersville Times, May 26, 2007: Rochester Democrat and Chronicle February 25, 2007; Kansas City Star, January 2, 2008; New York Times March 19, 2007. For the US statement, see New York Times March 25, 1998. In the period from 1968–1980, the Israeli government paid almost $13 million to the US government for the claimed accidental sinking of the USS Liberty in 1967.Google Scholar
16.New York Times September 12, 2003; New York Times April 22, 2008.Google Scholar
17.New York Times March 6, 2003.Google Scholar
18. For a concise summary see Manyin, M. E. (2001) North Korea-Japan Relations, the Normalization Talks, and the Compensation/Reparations Issue (Washington, DC: Congressional Reference Service); Japan Times June 11, 2005.Google Scholar
19.New Nation November 27, 2006; USA Today June 16, 1997; Guardian January 17, 1999. Guardian January 7, 1998. In 2007 President Sarkozy of France denounced colonialism as ‘profoundly unjust’. New York Times December 4, 2007.Google Scholar
20.Times October 13, 2007; Sydney Morning Herald February 18, 2008; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, November 27, 2007.Google Scholar
21.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle August 14, 1985; New York Times December 27, 1997; New York Times March 7, 2004; New York Times May 21, 1993.Google Scholar
22.Guardian October 30, 1998; Times November 29, 1998; New York Times April 16, 2008; New York Times November 6, 2003; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle April 11, 2008.Google Scholar
23.Fiji Times October 16, 2003; BBC News July 17, 2007; New York Times October 15, 2003.Google Scholar
24.New York Times July 21, 2002.Google Scholar
25.AP June 26, 2003; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle August 1, 2003; New York Times December 24, 1996. See the essay by Appiah in the New York Times March 18, 2007.Google Scholar
26.New York Times November 24, 2007.Google Scholar
27. See Hansen, C. (1969) Witchcraft at Salem (London: Hutchinson), pp. 218219; M. L. Starkey (1949) The Devil in Massachusetts: A Modern Enquiry into the Salem Witch Trials (Garden City: Anchor Books), pp. 266–268.Google Scholar
28.Daily News March 20, 2008.Google Scholar
29.New York Times July 18, 1989; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle September 30, 1989.Google Scholar
30.New York Times July 27, 1997.Google Scholar
31.Guardian January 6, 1999; New York Times July 21, 2004. This was still regarded as an unsatisfactory payment.Google Scholar
32.Appiah, K. A. and Gates, H. L. Jr. (2004) Africana: Civil Rights: An A-to-Z Reference of the Movement that Changed America (Philadelphia: Running Press), pp. 355357.Google Scholar
33.New York Times December 11, 1999; USA Today May 16, 2008; K. A. Appiah and H. L. Gates, Jr. (2004) Africana: Civil Rights: An A-to-Z Reference & the Movement that Changed America (Philadelphia: Running Press), pp. 405–406.Google Scholar
34.New York Times July 17, 1995; New York Times January 7, 1993; New York Times December 24, 2003.Google Scholar
35. In 2008 the US House of Representatives passed a measure that ‘apologizes to African-Americans on behalf of the US people for wrongs committed against them and their ancestors.’ Financial Times August 1, 2008; New York Times April 8, 2004. Interestingly the advocates at the apology to the Mormons noted that they could not ask forgiveness for acts ‘they had not personally committed.’.Google Scholar
36.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle November 12, 2007.Google Scholar
37.New York Times November 24, 2003.Google Scholar
38.New York Times November 30, 2004; New York Times April 16, 2003, on Bhopal, see New York Times November 30, 2004.Google Scholar
39.New York Times May 31, 1998; BBC News January 14, 2004. Rochester Democrat and Chronicle November 22, 2008.Google Scholar
40.New York Times March 16, 2003. See Note 33. See also Brophy, A. L. (2002) Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Riot of 1921; Race, Reparations, and Reconciliation (New York: Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Klingberg, F. W. (1955) The Southern Claims Commission (Berkeley: University of California Press).Google Scholar
42.Finkenbine, R.E. (2007) Belinda’s petition for reparations for slavery in revolutionary Massachusetts. William and Mary Quarterly, 64(January), 95104.Google Scholar
43.Winbush, R. A. (2003) Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: Amistad), pp. 334–336; H. Trefouse (1997) Thaddeus Stevens: Nineteenth-Century Egalitarian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press). Stevens also sought compensation for the property damage due to the rowdy confederate troops. Winbush is an excellent collection of the writings on reparations and a good guide to sources.Google Scholar
44.Redkey, E. S. (1969) Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890–1910 (New Haven: Yale University Press), pp. 3839, 52–57; E. S. Redkey (1971) Respect Black: The Writings and Speeches of Henry McNeal Turner (New York: Arno Press), pp. 76–80, 182–183.Google Scholar
45.Berry, M. F. (2005) My Face is Black is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-slave Reparations (New York: Alfred A Knopf), pp. 76181.Google Scholar
46. See the reprint of the full manuscript, Bittker, B. I. (2003) The Case for Black Reparations (Boston: Beacon Press), pp. 159175.Google Scholar
47. See Winbush, R. A. (2003) Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: Amistad), pp. 209225, on N’Cobra and the Economist August 13, 1994.Google Scholar
48. See Winbush, R. A. (2003) Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: Amistad), pp. 1421, 337–343.Google Scholar
49.New York Times March 13, 2004.Google Scholar
50. See the essays by Neal, Marketti, and Swinton in America, R. F. (1990) The Wealth of Races: The Present Value of Benefits from Past Injustices (New York: Greenwood Press); for a discussion of Fogel’s calculation, see Economist April 13, 2002.Google Scholar
51.Bittker, B. I. (2003) The Case for Black Reparations (Boston: Beacon Press), pp. 829.Google Scholar
52. The arguments concerning whether later immigrants should (or should not) be required to pay reparations is complex, since it can be argued that US immigration restrictions lowered the income of potential immigrants and those who stayed behind.Google Scholar
53.New York Times March 31, 2002.Google Scholar
54. Recent book-length discussions of reparations and apologies include Howard-Hassman, R. E. (2008) Reparations to Africa (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press); N. Smith (2008) I Was Wrong: The Meaning of Apologies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); A. L. Brophy (2006) Reparations: Pro and Con (New York: Oxford University Press); R. Robinson (2000) The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (New York: Dutton); J. Torpey (2006) Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparation Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press); R. L. Brooks (2004) Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations (Berkeley: University of California Press); M. Nobles (2005) The Politics of Official Apologies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); and J. Thompson (2002) Taking Responsibility for the Past: Reparations and Historical Justice (Cambridge: Polity Press), and for an earlier discussion, see A. Schuchter (1970) Reparations: The Black Manifesto and Its Challenge to White America (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott).CrossRefGoogle Scholar