(1) Most of the discussion about the subject has been influenced by Flexner, Abraham, Universities: American, English, German (New York, Oxford University Press, 1930)Google Scholar. For some of the more recent discussion of the problems of universities, cf. Wilson, Logan, The Academic Man (New York, Oxford University Press, 1942)Google Scholar; Guerlac, H. E., “Science and French National Strength, in Earle, E. M. ed., Modern France (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1951), pp. 81–105Google Scholar; Plessner, Helmuth ed., Untersuchun-gen zur Lage der deuischen Hochschullehrer (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1953), 3 vols.Google Scholar; Barzuk, Jacques, Teacher in America (New York, Doubleday, 1954)Google Scholar; Wolfle, Dael, America's Resources of Specialized Talent (New York, Harper, 1954)Google Scholar; Armytage, W. H. G., Civic Universities (London, Ernest Benn, 1955)Google Scholar; Kneller, George F., Higher Learning in Britain (London, Cambridge University Press, 1955)Google Scholar; Caplow, Theodore and McGee, Reece J., The Academic Marketplace (New York, Basic Books, 1958)Google Scholar; Riesman, David, Constraint and Variety in American Education (New York, Doubleday, 1958)Google Scholar; Corson, John J., Governance of Colleges and Universities (New York, McGraw Hill, 1960)Google Scholar; Anger, Hans, Probleme der deutschen Universität (Tübingen, Mohr, 1960).Google Scholar

(2) Cf. Barber, Bernard, Science and the Social Order (Glencoe, the Free Press, 1952), pp. 139–169.Google Scholar

(3) Cf. Cardwell, D. S. L., The Organisation of Science in England (London, Heinemann, 1957).Google Scholar

(4) Cf. Paulsen, F., The German Universities (New York, Longmans Green, 1906), p. 56Google Scholar; Plessner, , op. cit. vol. I., pp. 23–24.Google Scholar

(5) The main protagonist of this idea was Flexner, , op. cit. p. 326Google Scholar; cf. also Farmer, Paul, Nineteenth Century Ideas of the University, in Clapp, Margaret ed., The Modern University (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1950), pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

(6) Cf. about England Halévy, Élie, History of the English People, Epilogue: 1895–1905, Book 2 (London, Penguin Books, 1939), p. 24Google Scholar; about France, Guerlac, , op. cit.Google Scholar, and about the U.S.A., Flexner, Abraham, I Remember (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1940), pp. 63–64Google Scholar. About the fluctuations of scientific productivity in different countries, cf. Rainoff, T. J., Wave-like Fluctuations in Creative Productivity in the Development of West European Physics in the 18th and 19th centuries, Isis, XII (1922), 287–319Google Scholar; and Ben-David, Joseph, Scientific Productivity and Academic Organisation in Nineteenth Century Medicine, American Sociological Review, XXV (1960), 828–843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

(7) Cardwell, , op. cit. pp. 184–185Google Scholar; Flexner, , Universities, op. cit. pp. 331–332Google Scholar. There were however some who were sympathetic to the introduction of engineering studies at universities, cf. Paulsen, , op. cit. pp. 112–113.Google Scholar

(8) Ferber, Christian v., Die Entwicklung des Lehrkörpers der deutschen Hochschulen 1864–1954, vol. IIIGoogle Scholar of Plessner, , op. cit. pp. 67–71Google Scholar; for particular cases, cf. e. g. F. v. Müller, , Lebenserinnerungen (München 1953), pp. 150–151Google Scholar; Friedenwald, H., A Chronique Scandaleuse in the Vienna School, in Berghoff, Emmanuel, Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag Max Neuburgers (Wien 1948).Google Scholar

(9) Cf. König, René, Vom Wesen der deutschen Universität (Berlin, Verlag Die Runde, 1935), pp. 134 sqq.Google Scholar

(10) Plessner, , op. cit. vol. I., pp. 37–49, 192, 223Google Scholar; Von Ferber, , op. cit. pp. 87–88Google Scholar; Flexner, , Universities, op. cit. p. 332.Google Scholar

(11) This Erstarrung of the German university was observed by Troeltsch; cf. Samuel, and Thomas, , Education and Society in Modern Germany (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1949), p. 123.Google Scholar

(12) The importance of these circumstances in the development of scientific research has been treated in Ben-David, Joseph, op. cit.Google Scholar, and in “Roles and Innovations in Medicine”, American Journal of Sociology, LXV (1960), 557–568.Google Scholar

(13) About the situation of German intellectuals at the end of the 18th century, cf. Brunschwig, Henri, La crise de l'État prussien à la fin du XVIII^e siècle el la genèse de la mentalité romantique (Paris, Presses Universitaires, 1947), pp. 161–186.Google Scholar

(14) König, , op. cit., pp. 20ff, 49–53Google Scholar; Paulsen, , op. cit. p. 443Google Scholar. The closing down of some of the universities was connected with French occupation.

(15) Alongside a number of other reforms designed to create a popular identification with the state, cf. Pinson, Koppel S., Modern Germany (New York, Macmillan 1955), pp. 33–49.Google Scholar

(16) Paulsen, , op. cit. p. 63.Google Scholar

(17) Fichte certainly thought of one central university; cf. König, , op. cit. p. 82.Google Scholar

(18) Bonn 1818; München 1826; Zürich 1833.

(19) About the predominance of Naturphilosophie in medicine, cf. Shryock, Richard H., The Development of Modern Medicine (New York, Knopf, 1947), pp. 192–201Google Scholar, and Diepgen, Paul, Geschichte der Medizin (Berlin, Gruyter, 1955), vol. II-1, pp. 23–28.Google Scholar

(20) Cf. Paulsen, , op. cit. pp. 55–63.Google Scholar

(21) Zloczower, Awraham, Career Opportunities and the Growth of Scientific Discovery in 19th Century Germany, with special reference to physiology, M. A. Thesis, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1960 (unpublished).Google Scholar

(22) Rothschuh, K. E., Geschichte der Physiologie (Berlin, Springer, 1953), p. 93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

(23) Kisch, Bruno, Forgotten Leaders in Modern Medicine (Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1954), p. 174Google Scholar. On the refusal of physiologists to accept chairs obliging them to teach anatomy as well, cf. Gagliardi, E. et al. , Die Universität Zürich 1833–1933 und ihre Vorläufer (Zürich, Erziehungsdirektion, 1938), pp. 539–548.Google Scholar

(24) Zloczower, , op. cit.Google Scholar

(25) Rothschuh, , op. cit. p. 108.Google Scholar

(26) v. Ferber, , op. cit. pp. 204–205.Google Scholar

(27) Zloczower, , op. cit.Google Scholar

(28) Tabulated from Rothschuh, K. E., Entwicklungsgeschichte physiologischer Problems in Tabellenform (München und Berlin 1952).Google Scholar

(29) v. Ferber, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

(30) Paulsen, , op. cit. p. 51.Google Scholar

(31) Samuel, and Thomas, , op. cit. pp. 114–115.Google Scholar

(32) Cf. Diepgen, , op. cit. vol. II-1, pp. 152–153Google Scholar; Billroth, Theodor, The Medical Sciences in the German Universities (New York, Macmillan 1924), p. 27.Google Scholar

(33) Paulsen, , op. cit. pp. 83–86.Google Scholar

(34) Samuel, and Thomas, , op. cit. pp. 116–118Google Scholar; Paulsen, , op. cit. pp. 105, 246–247Google Scholar; Darlington, C. D., Freedom and Responsibility in Academic Life, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XIII (1957), 131–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

(35) Weber, Max, “Science as a Vocation”, in Gerth, H. H. and Mills, C. Wright, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York, Oxford University Press, 1947), pp. 129 sqq.Google Scholar; cf. Samuel, and Thomas, , op. cit. pp. 121–123.Google Scholar

(36) Ibid. pp. 116–121, 128, about the delicate balance of the status of the Oelehr-tenstand, and the spirit prevailing among students.

(37) Ibid. p. 118 about the reaction in the spirit of Wertfreiheit of the first Congress of German Historians in 1893 to the imperial decree of 1889, directing education to the task of combating revolutionary political doctrines.

(38) E.g. the social sciences; about their limited development, only somewhat modified after the first world war, cf. Flexner, , Universities, op. cit. pp. 328, 332–333.Google Scholar

(39) Cardwell, , op. cit.Google Scholar

(40) Cf. Anderson, C. Arnold and Schnaper, Miriam, School and Society in England; Social Background of Oxford and Cambridge Students (Washington, Public Affairs Press, 1952).Google Scholar

(41) Armytage, , op. cit. pp. 173–174.Google Scholar

(42) Ibid. p. 216; Cardwell, , op. cit. pp. 36–37, 72.Google Scholar

(43) Cf. Armytage, , op. cit. pp. 178, 206.Google Scholar

(44) Flexner, , Universities, op. cit. pp. 300–301.Google Scholar

(45) Ibid. pp. 280–287; Darlington, , op. cit.Google Scholar (for the description of the state of experimental physics in Oxford at the end of the last century. The present authors do not agree with Darlington's interpretation).

(46) Armytage, , op. cit. pp. 224–225.Google Scholar

(47) The typical pattern of the development of the provincial universities was: “Foundation, through the generosity of one or more private benefactors, of a college designed to teach chiefly scientific and technical subjects to the people of a great industrial town; the expansion of this into a university college by the addition of ‘faculties’ in the humane subjects and a department for the training of teachers and, finally, the securing of a Royal Charter”. Dent, H. C., British Education (London, 1949), p. 28.Google Scholar

(48) Cf. Kneller, , op. cit. pp. 96–99.Google Scholar

(49) Flexner, , op. cit. p. 256Google Scholar; Armytage, , op. cit. p. 231.Google Scholar

(50) Cf. for instance Flexner's (approving) remarks about the difference between the Department of Commerce at Birmingham University and American Business Schools, ibid. pp. 257–258. About the influence of Oxford and Cambridge, cf. also Shils, E. A., The Intellectuals, I: Great Britain, Encounter, 04 1955Google Scholar; Halsey, A. H., British Universities and Intellectual Life”, Universities Quarterly, XII (1958), 141–152.Google Scholar

(51) Cf. SirAshby, Eric, Technology and the Academies (London, Macmillan, 1959)Google Scholar; Payne, George Louis, Britain's Scientific and Technological Manpower (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1960), pp. 172–173.Google Scholar

(52) The authoritarian homogeneity of German departments was, however, mitigated somewhat, though insufficiently, by the custom of students transferring from one university to another, in order to have an opportunity for study under different teachers; cf. Flexner, , Universities, op. cit. p. 326Google Scholar; Plessner, , op. cit. p. 196.Google Scholar

(53) Cf. Hofstadter, Richard and Hardy, C. DeWitt, The Development and Scope of Higher Education in the United States (New York, Columbia University Press, 1952), p. 21Google Scholar; Storr, Richard J., The Beginnings of Graduate Education in America (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 1–6, 24, 52, 63, 79–80, 102, 107Google Scholar; Shryock, Richard H., Medicine and Society in America 1660–1860 (New York, New York University Press, 1960), pp. 138–143.Google Scholar

(54) Fleming, Donald H., William Welch and the Rise of Modern Medicine (Boston, Little Brown, 1954), pp. 173Google Scholar sqq., Hofs-Tadter, and Hardy, , op. cit. pp. 26–28, 38, 60 sqGoogle Scholar; Flexner, Abraham, Daniel Coit Gilman (New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1946), pp. 38 sq.Google Scholar

(55) Flexner, ibid. p. 108; Hofstadter, Richard and Metzger, Walter P., The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States (New York, Columbia University Press, 1955), pp. 378–383.Google Scholar

(56) Wilson, Logan, op. cit. pp. 53–93Google Scholar; Caplow, and McGee, , op. cit.Google Scholar

(57) Cf. Ziman, J. M., The American Scientist, New Statesman, LXII [No. 1591] (1961), 300–302.Google Scholar

(58) Cf. Office of Scientific Personnel, The Baccalaureate Origins of the Science Doctorates Awarded in the United States (Washington, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, Publication No. 382, 1955), p. 19.Google Scholar

(59) Hofstadter, and Metzger, , op. cit. pp. 380–383.Google Scholar

(60) About the development of the French academic system, cf. Œuvres de Monsieur Victor Cousin (Paris, Pagnerre, 1850)Google Scholar, 5^e série «Instruction publique», vol. I and II; d'Irsay, Stephen, Histoire des universités françaises et étrangères (Paris, Auguste Picard, 1935), vol. IIGoogle Scholar; Guerlac, , op. cit.Google Scholar; Flexner, Abraham, Medical Education in Europe (New York, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1912), pp. 221–223.Google Scholar

(61) Cf. Ben-David, , op. cit., Am. Sociol. ReviewGoogle Scholar; Cousin, , op. cit., I, p. 44.Google Scholar

(62) About the present-day organisation cf. Piobetta, J. B., Les institutions universitaires en France (Paris, Presses universitaires, 1951)Google Scholar; Étienne Gilson, La maison à l'envers, Le Monde, 21 mars 1947Google Scholar; Avons-nous des universités?, ibid., 17 juin 1947; and the article by Raymond Aron, infra.

(63) For descriptions of the Soviet academic system, cf. DeWitt, Nicholas, Soviet Professional Manpower (Washington, National Science Foundation, 1955)Google Scholar; Korol, Alexander G., Soviet Education for Science and Technology (New York, John Wiley, 1957)Google Scholar; Yelyutin, Vyacheslav, Higher Education in the U.S.S.R. (New York, International Arts and Sciences Press, 1959).Google Scholar

(64) The growth of professional education in the U.S.S.R. has, however, been limited largely to technological, medical and pedagogical fields. Education in the broader sense, management, social work and other human relations fields have been much less developed, perhaps because of the schooling in these spheres received by professional Communists in various courses organized by the party.

(65) Cousin, , op. cit., II, pp. 400–470Google Scholar; Gadoffre, Gilbert, Facultés ou instituts, Le Monde, 17 avril 1947.Google Scholar

(66) For tendencies of centralization and conservatism, cf. Ashby, Eric, Scientist in Russia (Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1947). pp. 19–23Google Scholar; for recent attempts at decentralization, cf. Korol, , op. cit. pp. 145–152.Google Scholar

(67) Cf. the interesting accounts of Weil, André, “Science française”, in La Nouvelle Revue Française, III (1955), 97–109Google Scholar; Ziman, , op. cit.Google Scholar, and for a French testimony about conditions at the beginning of the century, Leriche, René, Am Ende meines Lebens (Bern/Stuttgart, Huber, 1957), p. 34.Google Scholar