Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-2lccl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T07:14:40.334Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effects of diet, feeding and daily variation on acid–base balance in horses

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

A Waller ,
S Armstrong ,
K-J Smithurst  and
MI Lindinger
A Waller
Affiliation:
Department of Human Biology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
S Armstrong
Affiliation:
Department of Human Biology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
K-J Smithurst
Affiliation:
Department of Human Biology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
MI Lindinger*
Affiliation:
Department of Human Biology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
*
*mlinding@uoguelph.ca
Get access

Abstract

This paper reviews the acute and chronic effects of feeding, diet composition and daily variation on equine acid–base status. The dietary cation–anion difference (DCAD) has a marked effect on blood acid–base balance in both the short term and long term. In general, diets with a low DCAD generate an acute acidosis that develops into a persistent though mild systemic, strong ion acidosis with long-term feeding. In contrast, high-DCAD diets result in a mild, persistent strong ion alkalosis characterized by elevated plasma pH, [HCO3] and total CO2 (TCO2). The acute blood acid–base responses to feeding include alterations in plasma pH and plasma concentrations of HCO3, TCO2, Cl−, Na+, K+ and protein. The forage component of the diet appears to be primarily responsible for the acute responses. There is limited research examining abrupt alterations in DCAD and the influence of daily variation on equine plasma acid–base balance. It is concluded that the composition of the diet, duration of adaptation to the diet, timing of feeding and time of day need to be considered when examining acid–base balance in horses.

Keywords

reviewstrong ion differencenutritiondietary cation–anion differencedietary cation–anion balance
Type
Research Article
Information
Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology , Volume 1 , Issue 3 , August 2004 , pp. 153 - 165
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Davenport, HW (1974). The ABC of Acid–Base Chemistry 6th ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 124 pp.Google Scholar
2Johnson, RL, Heigenhauser, GJF, Hsia, CCW, Jones, NL and Wagner, PD (1996). Determinants of gas exchange and acid–base balance during exercise. In: Rowell, LB and Shepherd, JT (eds), Handbook of Physiology. Section 12: Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 515–584.Google Scholar
3Carlson, GP (2000). Fluid, electrolyte and acid–base balance. In: Kaneko, JJ, Harvey, JW and Bruss, ML (eds), Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. Toronto: Academic Press, pp. 485–516.Google Scholar
4Lindinger, MI (2004). Acid–base physiology during exercise and in response to training. In: Hinchcliff, KW, Kaneps, AJ and Geor, RJ (eds), Equine Sports Medicine and Surgery: Basic and Clinical Sciences of the Athletic Horse New York: Elsevier press, pp. 586–611.Google Scholar
5Stewart, PA (1981). How to Understand Acid–Base: A Quantitative Primer for Biology and Medicine New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
6Stewart, PA (1983). Modern quantitative acid–base chemistry. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 61: 1444–1461.Google Scholar
7Tauriainen, S (2001). Dietary cation–anion balance and calcium and magnesium intake of the dry cow. Academic Dissertation. University of Helsinki, Department of Animal Science Publications 57: 1–53.Google Scholar
8Block, E (1994). Manipulation of dietary cation–anion difference of nutritionally related production diseases, productivity, and metabolic responses of dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 77: 1437–1450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Ross, JG, Spears, JW and Garlich, JD (1994). Dietary electrolyte balance effects on performance and metabolic characteristics in finishing steers. Journal of Animal Science 72: 1600–1607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Jackson, JA, Akay, V, Franklin, ST and Aaron, DK (2001). The effect of cation–anion difference on calcium requirement, feed intake, body weight gain, and blood gasses and mineral concentrations of dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science 84: 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Budde, RA and Crenshaw, TD (2003). Chronic metabolic acid load induced by changes in dietary electrolyte balance increased chloride retention but did not compromise bone in growing swine. Journal of Animal Science 81: 197–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12Constable, PD (1997). A simplified strong ion model for acid–base equilibria: application to horse plasma. Journal of Applied Physiology 83: 297–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13Watson, PD (1999). Modeling the effects of proteins on pH in plasma. Journal of Applied Physiology 86: 1421–1427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14Kronfeld, DS (2001). Body fluids and exercise: influences of nutrition and feeding management. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 21: 417–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15Manz, F (2001). History of nutrition and acid–base physiology. European Journal of Nutrition 40: 189–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Riond, J-L (2001). Animal nutrition and acid–base balance. European Journal of Nutrition 40: 245–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Remer, T (2001). Influence of nutrition on acid–base balance – metabolic aspects. European Journal of Nutrition 40: 214–220.Google Scholar
18Schryver, HF, Parker, MT, Daniluk, PD, Pagan, KI, Williams, J, Soderholm, LV et al. (1987). Salt consumption and the effect of salt on mineral metabolism in horses. Cornell Veterinary Journal 77: 122–131.Google ScholarPubMed
19Meyer, H and Coenen, M (1989). Influence of exercise on the water and electrolyte content of the alimentary tract. Proceedings of the 11th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium. Savoy, IL: Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, pp. 3–7.Google Scholar
20Coenen, M and Vervuert, I (2003). Water and electrolyte turnover in the equine athlete. Uberschrift Tierernahrung 31: 29–73.Google Scholar
21National Research Council, (1989). Nutrient Requirements of Horses 5th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
22Golz, DL and Crenshaw, TD (1991). The effect of dietary potassium and chloride on cation–anion balance in swine. Journal of Animal Science 69: 2504–2515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23Graham-Thiers, PM, Kronfeld, DS and Kline, KA (1999). Dietary protein influences acid–base responses to repeated sprints. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement 30: 463–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24Tucker, WB, Hogue, JF, Waterman, DF, Swenson, TS, Xin, Z, Hemken, RW et al. (1991). Role of sulfur and chloride in the dietary cation–anion balance equation for lactating dairy cattle. Journal of Animal Science 69: 1205–1213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25Baker, LA, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, Teeter, RG and Stoecker, B (1998). The comparison of two forms of sodium and potassium and chloride versus sulfur in the dietary cation–anion difference equation: effects on acid–base status and mineral balance in sedentary horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 18: 389–394.Google Scholar
26Baker, LA, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, Teeter, RG and Breazile, JW (1992). Effect of dietary cation–anion balance on acid–base status in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 12: 160–163.Google Scholar
27Baker, LA, Wall, DL, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, Teeter, RG, Breazile, JE et al. (1993). Effect of dietary cation–anion balance on mineral balance in anaerobically exercised and sedentary horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 13: 557–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28Ralston, SL, Puzio, C and Cuddeford, D (1993). Dietary carbohydrate, acid–base status and urinary calcium and phosphorus excretion in horses. Proceedings of the 13th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, Savoy, IL: Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, pp. 42–43.Google Scholar
29Ralston, SL (1994). The effect of diet on acid–base status and mineral excretion in horses. Equine Practice 16: 10–13.Google Scholar
30Stutz, WA, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, Tucker, WB, Breazile, JW and Wall, DL (1992). Effect of dietary cation–anion balance on blood parameters in exercising horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 12: 164–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31Wall, DL, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, Wagner, DG, Breazile, JW and Stutz, WA (1992). Effect of dietary cation–anion balance on urinary mineral excretion in exercised horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 12: 168–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32Cooper, SR, Kline, KH, Foreman, JH, Brady, HA and Frey, LP (1998). Effects of dietary cation–anion balance on pH, electrolytes and lactate in standardbred horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 18: 662–666.Google Scholar
33Popplewell, JC, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW and Breazile, JE (1993). Effects of dietary cation–anion balance on acid base balance and blood parameters in anaerobically exercised horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 13: 552–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34Kerr, MG and Snow, DH (1982). Alterations in haematocrit, plasma proteins and electrolytes in horses following the feeding of hay. The Veterinary Record 110: 538–540.Google Scholar
35Clarke, LL, Argenzio, RA and Roberts, MC (1990). Effect of meal feeding on plasma volume and urinary electrolyte clearance in ponies. American Journal of Veterinary Research 51: 571–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36Jansson, A, Lindholm, A, Lindberg, JE and Dahlborn, K (1999). Effects of potassium intake on potassium, sodium, and fluid balance in exercising horses. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement 30: 412–417.Google Scholar
37Spears, JW, Burns, JC and Hatch, PA (1985). Sulfur fertilization of cool season grasses and effect on utilization of minerals, nitrogen, and fiber by steers. Journal of Dairy Science 68: 347–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38Southwood, LL, Evans, DL, Hodgson, DR, Bryden, WL and Rose, RJ (1993). The effect of roughage source on exercise performance and metabolism in thoroughbred horses. Cornell Veterinary Journal 83: 243–255.Google Scholar
39Eckersall, PD (1984). Equine whole saliva: a sample collection system and biochemical analysis. The Veterinary Record 115: 437–438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40Radicke, S, Kienzle, E and Meyer, H (1991). Preilleal apparent digestibility of oats and cornstarch and consequences for cecal metabolism. Proceedings of the 12th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, Savoy, IL: Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, pp. 43–48.Google Scholar
41Lewis, LD (1996). Carbohydrate types and utilization. In: Cann, CC (ed.), Feeding and Care of the Horse. Media, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, pp. 16–18.Google Scholar
42Constable, PD, Hinchcliff, KW and Muir, WW (1998). Comparison of anion gap and strong ion gap as predictors of unmeasured strong ion concentration in plasma and serum from horses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 59: 881–887.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Dersjant-Li, Y, Schulze, H, Schrama, JW, Verreth, JA and Verstegen, MW (2001). Feed intake, growth, digestibility of dry matter and nitrogen in young pigs as affected by dietary-anion difference and supplementation of xylanase. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition (Berlin) 85: 101–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Ross, JG, Spears, JW and Garlich, JD (1994). Dietary electrolyte balance effects on performance and metabolic characteristics in growing steers. Journal of Animal Science 72: 1842–1848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Jackson, JA, Hopkins, DM, Xin, Z and Hemken, RW (1992). Influence of cation–anion balance on feed intake, body weight gain, and humoral response of dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science 75: 1281–1286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46Jackson, JA and Hemken, RW (1994). Calcium and cation–anion balance effects on feed intake, body weight gain, and humoral response of dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science 77: 1430–1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Haydon, KD, West, JW and McCarter, MN (1990). Effect of dietary electrolyte balance on performance and blood parameters of growing–finishing swine fed in high ambient temperatures. Journal of Animal Science 68: 2400–2406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48McKenzie, EC, Valberg, SJ, Godden, SM, Pagan, JD, Carlson, GP, MacLeay, JM et al. (2002). Plasma and urine electrolyte and mineral concentrations in Thoroughbred horses with recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis after consumption of diets varying in cation–anion balance. American Journal of Veterinary Research 63: 1053–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49Clarke, LL, Ganjam, VK, Fichtenbaum, B, Hatfield, D and Garner, HE (1988). Effect of feeding on renin–angioten–sin–aldosterone system of the horse. American Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 254: R524–R530.Google ScholarPubMed
50Jansson, A and Dahlborn, K (1999). Effects of feeding frequency and voluntary salt intake on fluid and electrolyte regulation in athletic horses. Journal of Applied Physiology 86: 1610–1616.Google Scholar
51Yashiki, K, Kusunose, R and Takagi, S (1995). Diurnal variations of blood constituents in young thoroughbred horses. Journal of Equine Science 6: 91–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Patience, JF (1990). A review of the role of acid–base balance in amino acid nutrition. Journal of Animal Science 68: 398–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53Greppi, GF, Casini, L, Gatta, D, Orlandi, M and Pasquini, M (1996). Daily fluctuations of haematology and blood biochemistry in horses fed varying levels of protein. Equine Veterinary Journal 28: 350–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54Graham-Thiers, PM, Kronfeld, DS, Kline, KA and Sklan, DJ (2001). Dietary protein restriction and fat supplementation diminish the acidogenic effect of exercise during repeated sprints in horses. Journal of Nutrition 131: 1959–1964.Google Scholar
55Custalow, SE, Ferrante, PL, Taylor, LE, Moll, HD, Meacham, TN, Kronfeld, DS et al. (1993). Lactate and glucose responses to exercise in the horse are affected by training and dietary fat. Proceedings of the 13th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, Savoy, IL: Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, pp. 179–184.Google Scholar
56Ferrante, PL, Kronfeld, DS, Taylor, LE and Meacham, TN (1994). Plasma [H+] responses to exercise in horses fed a high-fat diet and given sodium bicarbonate. Journal of Nutrition 124 (Suppl.): 2736S–2737S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57Taylor, LE, Ferrante, PL, Kronfeld, DS and Meacham, TN (1995). Acid–base variables during incremental exercise in sprint-trained horses fed a high-fat diet. Journal of Animal Science 73: 2009–2018.Google Scholar
58Mueller, RK, Cooper, SR, Topliff, DR, Freeman, DW, MacAllister, C and Carter, SD (2001). Effect of dietary cation–anion difference on acid–base status and energy digestibility in sedentary horses fed varying levels and types of starch. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 21: 498–502.Google Scholar
59Piccione, G, Assenza, A, Fazio, F, Giudice, E and Caola, G (2001). Different periodicities of some haematological parameters in exercise-loaded athletic horses and sedentary horses. Journal of Equine Science 12: 17–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60Slocombe, RF, Huntington, PJ, Lind, KL and Vine, JH (1995). Plasma CO2 and electrolytes: diurnal changes and effects of adrenaline, doxapram, rebreathing and transport. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement 18: 331–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61Boning, D, Schweigart, U and Kunze, M (1974). Diurnal variations of protein and electrolyte concentrations and of acid base status in plasma and red cells of normal man. European Journal of Applied Physiology 32: 239–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62Lepage, OM, Descoteaux, L, Marcoux, M and Tremblay, A (1991). Circadian rhythms of osteocalcin in equine serum. Correlation with alkaline phosphatase, calcium, phosphate and total protein levels. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 55: 5–10.Google ScholarPubMed
63Minematsu, S, Watanabe, M, Tsuchiya, N, Watanabe, M and Amgaya, S (1995). Diurnal variations in blood chemical items in Sprague–Dawley rats. Experimental Animal 44: 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed