Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-xm8r8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-19T10:52:57.208Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Psychological Consequences of the Flint Water Crisis: A Scoping Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2021

Samantha K Brooks  and
Sonny S Patel Open the ORCID record for Sonny S Patel [Opens in a new window]
Samantha K Brooks
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological Medicine, King’s College London, UK
Sonny S Patel*
Affiliation:
Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
*
Corresponding author: Sonny Patel, Email: sonny@berkeley.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract*

Objective:

To summarize existing literature on the mental health impact of the Flint Water Crisis.

Methods:

In March 2020, we searched 5 databases for literature exploring the psychological consequences of the crisis. Main findings were extracted.

Results:

132 citations were screened and 11 included in the review. Results suggest a negative psychological effect caused by the water crisis, including anxiety and health worries, exacerbated by lowered trust in public health officials, uncertainty about the long-term impacts of the crisis, financial hardships, stigma, and difficulties seeking help. There was evidence that concerns about tap water continued even after the state of emergency was lifted.

Conclusions:

With a possible compound effect to residents of Flint with the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the results highlight the need for more resources for psychological health interventions in Flint as well as a need for local governments and health authorities to regain the trust of those affected by the Flint Water Crisis.

Keywords

mental healthflint water crisispublic healthliterature reviewpsychological warfare
Type
Systematic Review
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , June 2022 , pp. 1259 - 1269
Copyright
© Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc. 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This article has been corrected since its original publication. See doi:10.1017/dmp.2021.234.

References

United States Census Bureau. QuickFacts: Flint city, Michigan. 2019; https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/flintcitymichigan. Accessed March 28, 2020.Google Scholar
Adams, D. Closing the valve on history: Flint cuts water flow from Detroit after nearly 50 years; 2014; https://www.mlive.com/news/flint/2014/04/closing_the_valve_on_history_f.html. Accessed March 28, 2020.Google Scholar
Kennedy, M. Lead-laced water in Flint: A step-by-step look at the makings of a crisis. 2016; https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/04/20/465545378/lead-laced-water-in-flint-a-step-by-step-look-at-the-makings-of-a-crisis?t=1585338427351. Accessed March 27, 2020.Google Scholar
Edwards, M. Our sampling of 252 homes demonstrates a high lead in water risk: Flint should be failing to meet the EPA Lead and Copper Rule. 2015; http://flintwaterstudy.org/2015/09/our-sampling-of-252-homes-demonstrates-a-high-lead-in-water-risk-flint-should-be-failing-to-meet-the-epa-lead-and-copper-rule/. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Hanna-Attisha, M, LaChance, J, Sadler, RC, Champney Schnepp, A. Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: A spatial analysis of risk and public health response. Am J Public Health. 2016;106(2):283–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seville, LR, Rappleye, H, Connor, T. Bad decisions, broken promises: A timeline of the Flint Water Crisis. Published January 18, 2016. https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/flint-water-crisis/bad-decisions-broken-promises-timeline-flint-water-crisis-n499641. Accessed May 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Renwick, D. Five years on, the Flint water crisis is nowhere near over. 2019; National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/04/flint-water-crisis-fifth-anniversary-flint-river-pollution/. Accessed March 28, 2020.Google Scholar
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological profile for lead Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health & Human Services. 2007. Available at: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/37676/cdc_37676_DS1.pdf. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Grandjean, P, Landrigan, PJ. Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(3):330–338.Google ScholarPubMed
Makwana, N. Disaster and its impact on mental health: A narrative review. J Family Med Prim Care. 2019;8(10):3090–3095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bland, SH, O’Leary, ES, Farinaro, E, Jossa, F, Trevisan, M. Long-term psychological effects of natural disasters [published correction appears in Psychosom Med 1996 Jul-Aug;58(4):320]. Psychosom Med. 1996;58(1):18–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolton, D, O’Ryan, D, Udwin, O, Boyle, S, Yule, W. The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: II: General psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2000;41(4):513–523.Google ScholarPubMed
Harris, D. FBI statistics show Flint fourth most violent city in America. 2010; https://www.mlive.com/news/flint/2010/09/fbi_statistics_show_flint_four.html. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Warner, A, Fuchs, E, Lubin, G. The 25 most dangerous cities in America. 2013; https://www.businessinsider.com/most-dangerous-cities-in-america-2013-6?r=US&IR=T. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Michigan Civil Rights Commission. The Flint water crisis: Systemic racism through the lens of Flint. Report of the Michigan Civil Rights Commission; 2017. https://www.michigan.gov/documents/mdcr/VFlintCrisisRep-F-Edited3-13-17_554317_7.pdf. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
SAMHSA. Disaster Technical Assistance Center supplemental research bulletin. Greater impact: How disasters affect people of low socioeconomic status; 2017. https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/dtac/srb-low-ses_2.pdf. Accessed April 17, 2020.Google Scholar
Kruger, DJ, Cupal, S, Franzen, SP, Kodjebacheva, G, Bailey, ES, Key, KD, Kaufman, MM. Toxic trauma: Household water quality experiences predict posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during the Flint, Michigan, water crisis. J Community Psychol. 2017;45:957–962.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. Chernobyl’s legacy: Health, environmental and socio economic impacts. The Chernobyl Forum: 2003-2005. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency; 2006. https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/chernobyl.pdf. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Al-Sibai, N. Echoes of Flint in ‘Chernobyl’. Truthdig; 2019. https://www.truthdig.com/articles/echoes-of-flint-in-chernobyl/. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
McFarland, M. This is our Chernobyl: Frontline’s “Flint’s Deadly Water” exposes shocking Legionnaires’ crisis; 2019. https://www.salon.com/2019/09/10/this-is-our-chernobyl-frontlines-flints-deadly-water-exposes-shocking-legionnaires-crisis/. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Campbell, C, Greenberg, R, Mankikar, D, Ross, RD. A case study of environmental injustice: The failure in Flint. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13(10):951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abir, M, Cunningham, R, Zimmerman, M. Community resilience is key in the aftermath of Flint’s lead water crisis. The Rand blog; 2016. https://www.rand.org/blog/2016/03/community-resilience-is-key-in-the-aftermath-of-flints.html. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Genesee County Health Department. Coronavirus (COVID-19) information; 2020. https://gchd.us/coronavirus/. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Brooks, SK, Webster, RK, Smith, LE, et al. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet. 2020;395(10227):912–920.Google ScholarPubMed
Braun, V, Clarke, V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruger, DJ, Cupal, S, Kodjebacheva, GD, Fockler, TV. Perceived water quality and reported health among adults during the Flint, MI water crisis. CJHP. 2017;15(1):56–61.Google Scholar
Fortenberry, GZ, Reynolds, P, Burrer, SL, et al. Assessment of behavioral health concerns in the community affected by the Flint Water Crisis - Michigan (USA) 2016. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2018;33(3):256–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, S, Singer, A, Schmitt-Olabisi, L, Introne, J, Henderson, J. Identifying the causes, consequences, and solutions to the Flint water crisis through collaborative modeling. Environ Justice. 2017;10(5):154–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, A, Gray, S, Sadler, A, Schmitt-Olabisi, L, et al. Translating community narratives into semi-quantitative models to understand the dynamics of socio-environmental crises. Environ Modell Softw. 2017;97:46–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruger, DJ, Kodjebacheva, GD, Cupal, S. Poor tap water quality experiences and poor sleep quality during the Flint, Michigan Municipal Water Crisis. Sleep Health. 2017;3(4):241–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuthbertson, CA, Newkirk, C, Ilardo, J, Loveridge, S, Skidmore, M. Angry, scared, and unsure: Mental health consequences of contaminated water in Flint, Michigan. J Urban Health. 2016;93(6):899–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sneed, RS, Dotson, K, Brewer, A, Pugh, P, Johnson-Lawrence, V. Behavioral health concerns during the Flint Water Crisis, 2016-2018. Community Ment Health J. 2020;56(5):793–803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruger, DJ. Facultative adjustments in future planning tendencies: Insights on life history plasticity from the Flint water crisis. Evol Psychol Sci. 2018;4:372–383.Google Scholar
Heard-Garris, NJ, Roche, J, Carter, P, et al. Voices from Flint: Community perceptions of the Flint Water Crisis. J Urban Health. 2017;94(6):776–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morckel, V, Terzano, K. Legacy city residents’ lack of trust in their governments: An examination of Flint, Michigan residents’ trust at the height of the water crisis. J Urban Aff. 2019;41(5):585–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, P, Clifford, A, Gussy, K, Gartner, C. A systematic review of peer-support programs for smoking cessation in disadvantaged groups. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10(11):5507–5522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tracy, K, Wallace, SP. Benefits of peer support groups in the treatment of addiction. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2016;7:143–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morganstein, JC, Ursano, RJ. Ecological disasters and mental health: Causes, consequences, and interventions. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bromet, EJ, Havenaar, JM, Guey, LT. A 25 year retrospective review of the psychological consequences of the Chernobyl accident. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2011;23(4):297–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havenaar, JM, Bromet, EJ, Gluzman, S. The 30-year mental health legacy of the Chernobyl disaster. World Psychiatry. 2016;15(2):181–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samet, JM, Patel, SS. The psychological and welfare consequences of the Chernobyl disaster: A systematic literature review, focus group findings, and future directions; USC Institute for Global Health; 2011. https://uscglobalhealth.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/chernobyl_report_april2011.pdf. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Samet, JM, Patel, SS. Selected health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster: A further systematic literature review. Focus group findings, and future directions; 2013. https://www.gcint.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Samet-Patel-Chernobyl-Health-Report-2013-light_Part1.pdf. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Bolt, MA, Helming, LM, Tintle, NL. The associations between Self-Reported Exposure to the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster Zone and Mental Health Disorders in Ukraine. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muhammad, M, De Loney, EH, Brooks, CL, Assari, S, Robinson, D, Caldwell, CH. “I think that’s all a lie…I think It’s genocide”: Applying a critical race praxis to youth perceptions of Flint water contamination. Ethn Dis. 2018;28(Suppl 1):241–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pulido, L. Flint, environmental racism, and racial capitalism. Capital Nat Social. 2016;27(3):1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laster Pirtle, WN. Racial Capitalism: A Fundamental Cause of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic Inequities in the United States. Health Educ Behav. 2020;47(4):504–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleming, LN. COVID-19 compounds Flint’s woes after contaminated water crisis. The Detroit News; Published June 2, 2020. https://eu.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/06/02/covid-19-compounds-flints-woes-after-contaminated-water-crisis/5221851002/. Accessed September 29, 2020.Google Scholar
Boufides, CH, Gable, L, Jacobson, PD. Learning from the Flint Water Crisis: Restoring and improving public health practice, accountability, and trust. J Law Med Ethics. 2019;47(2_suppl):23–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ahmad, Z. Flint program aims to build resilient, trauma-informed communities; 2019. https://www.mlive.com/news/flint/2018/09/flint_program_aims_to_build_re.html. Accessed May 4, 2020.Google Scholar
Goodnough, A, Atkinson, S. A potent side effect to the Flint water crisis: Mental health problems; 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/01/us/flint-michigan-water-crisis-mental-health.html. Accessed March 27, 2020.Google Scholar
Rajkumar, RP. COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature. Asian J Psychiatr. 2020;52:102066.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sneed, RS, Key, K, Bailey, S, Johnson-Lawrence, V. Social and psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in African-American communities: Lessons from Michigan. Psychol Trauma. 2020;12(5):446–448.Google ScholarPubMed
Patel, SS, Rogers, MB, Amlôt, R, Rubin, GJ. What do we mean by ‘community resilience’? A systematic literature review of how it is defined in the literature. PLoS Curr. 2017;9:ecurrents.dis.db775aff25efc5ac4f0660ad9c9f7db2.Google Scholar