Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T00:57:10.845Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Neuropsychological Assessment of Dementia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Thomas Benke  and
Elfriede Karner
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

It has become standard practice to base the diagnosis of dementia on the combination of neuropsychological and non-behavioral findings. The present article provides a short, clinically oriented synopsis of the targets, investigational procedures, and difficulties of the modern neuropsychological approach to the diagnosis of dementia. Over the years, neuropsychology has developed assessment tools to evaluate the cognitive and behavioral abnormalities of many dementias. Validated tests of memory, language, executive, and other cognitive functions are used to screen for dementia and identifying certain dementia profiles. Behavioral assessment procedures are available for non-cognitive neurodegenerative alterations. At present, problems arise mainly with the behavioral heterogeneity of certain dementia syndromes. Especially problamatic are discrimination of age-associated or mild cognitive impairments from incipient dementia and the impact of psychiatric symptoms on cognitive functions. It is concluded that neuropsychology offers a valuable contribution to the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of dementia.

Type
Feature Article
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 7 , Issue 5 , May 2002 , pp. 371 - 375
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
2.Application of the International Classification of Diseases to Neurology. Washington, DC: World Health Organization; 1997.Google Scholar
3.Rosenstein, LD. Differential diagnosis of the major progressive dementias and depression in middle and late adulthood: a summary of the literature of the early 1990s. Neuropsychol Rev. 1998;8:109–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Boller, F, Mizutani, T, Roessmann, U, Gambetti, P. Parkinson disease, dementia, and Alzheimer disease: clinicopathological correlations. Ann Neurol. 1980;7:329–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Schneider, JA, Watts, RL, Gearing, M, Brewer, RP, Mirra, SS. Corticobasal degeneration: neuropathologic and clinical heterogeneity. Neurology. 1997;48:959–969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Royall, DR, Polk, M. Dementias that present with and without posterior cortical features: an important clinical distinction. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998;46:98–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Weintraub, S, Marsel Mesulam, M. Four neuropsychological profiles in dementia. In: Spinnler, H, Boller, F, eds. Handbook of Neuropsychology. Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands; 1993:253–282.Google Scholar
8.Whitehouse, PJ. The concept of subcortical and cortical dementia: another look. Ann Neurol. 1986;19:1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.Cummings, JL, Benson, DF. Dementia: A Clinical Approach. Boston, Mass: Butterworths; 1983.Google Scholar
10.McKhann, G, Drachman, D, Folstein, M, et al.Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology. 1984;34:939–944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Morris, JC, Heyman, A, Mohs, RC, et al.The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part I. Clinical and neuropsychological assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 1989;39:1159–1165.Google Scholar
12.Albert, MS. Cognitive and neurobiologic markers of early Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996;93:13547–13551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Carlesimo, GA, Oscar-Berman, M. Memory deficits in Alzheimer's patients: a comprehensive review. Neuropsychol Rev. 1992;3:119–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Benke, T. Two forms of apraxia in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex. 1993;29:715–725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Baddeley, AD, Baddeley, HA, Bucks, RS, Wilcock, GK. Attentional control in Alzheimer's disease. Brain. 2001;124:1492–1508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Girelli, L, Delazer, M. Numerical abilities in dementia. Aphasiology. 2001;15:681–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Hodges, JR, Salmon, DP, Butters, N. Differential impairment of semantic and episodic memory in Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases: a controlled prospective study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990;53:1089–1095.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Gainotti, G. Mechanisms underlying semantic-lexical disorders in Alzheimer's disease. In: Spinnler, H, Boller, F, eds. Handbook of Neuropsychology. Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands; 1993:283–294.Google Scholar
19.Bayles, KA, Kaszniak, AW, Tomoeda, CK. Communication and Cognition in Normal Aging and Dementia. London, England: Taylor & Francis; 1987.Google Scholar
20.Huff, FJ. Language in normal aging and age-related neurological diseases. In: Boller, F, Grafman, J, eds. Handbook of Neuropsychology. Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands; 1990:251–264.Google Scholar
21.Albert, ML, Feldman, RG, Willis, AL. The ‘subcortical dementia’ of progressive supranuclear palsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1974;37:121–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Cummings, JL. Subcortical Dementia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 1990.Google Scholar
23.Caine, ED, Hunt, RD, Weingartner, H, Ebert, MH. Huntington's dementia. Clinical and neuropsychological features. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1978;35:377–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Zakzanis, KK. The subcortical dementia of Huntington's disease. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1998;20:565–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Lawrence, AD, Sahakian, BJ, Hodges, JR, et al.Executive and mnemonic functions in early Huntington's disease. Brain. 1996;119(Pt 5):1633–1645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Taylor, AE, Saint-Cyr, JA, Lang, AE. Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. The cortical focus of neostriatal outflow. Brain. 1986;109(Pt 5):845–883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Beatty, WW. Memory disturbances in Parkinson's disease. In: Huber, SJ, Cummings, JL, eds. Parkinson's disease. Neurobehavioral Aspects. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1992;49–58.Google Scholar
28.Raskin, SA, Borod, JC, Tweedy, J. Neuropsychological aspects of Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychol Rev. 1990;1:185–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Dubois, B, Pillon, B. Cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol. 1997;244:2–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Huber, SJ, Cummings, JL. Parkinson's Disease: Neurobehavioral Aspects. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1992.Google Scholar
31.Robbins, TW, James, M, Owen, AM, et al.Cognitive deficits in progressive supranuclear palsy, Parkinson's disease, and multiple system atrophy in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994;57:79–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Rao, SM. Neurobehavioral Aspects of Multiple Sclerosis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1990.Google Scholar
33.Janssen, RS, Saykin, AJ, Cannon, L, et al.Neurological and neuropsychological manifestations of HIV-1 infection: association with AIDS-related complex but not asymptomatic HIV-1 infection. Ann Neurol. 1989;26:592–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34.Miller, EN, Selnes, OA, McArthur, JC, et al.Neuropsychological performance in HIV-1-infected homosexual men: The Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). Neurology. 1990;40:197–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Salmon, DP, Galasko, D, Hansen, LA, et al.Neuropsychological deficits associated with diffuse Lewy body disease. Brain Cogn. 1996;31:148–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Cercy, SP, Bylsma, FW. Lewy bodies and progressive dementia: a critical review and meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1997;3:179–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.McKeith, IG, Galasko, D, Kosaka, K, et al.Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology. 1996;47:1113–1124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38.Mega, MS, Masterman, DL, Benson, DF, et al.Dementia with Lewy bodies: reliability and validity of clinical and pathologic criteria. Neurology. 1996;47:1403–1409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Roman, GC, Tatemichi, TK, Erkinjuntti, T, et al.Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology. 1993;43:250–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Kertesz, A, Clydesdale, S. Neuropsychological deficits in vascular dementia vs Alzheimer's disease. Frontal lobe deficits prominent in vascular dementia. Arch Neurol. 1994;51:1226–1231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41.Starkstein, SE, Sabe, L, Vazquez, S, et al.Neuropsychological, psychiatric, and cerebral blood flow findings in vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Stroke. 1996;27:408–414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Benson, DF, Davis, RJ, Snyder, BD. Posterior cortical atrophy. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:789–793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Broussolle, E, Bakchine, S, Tommasi, M, et al.Slowly progressive anarthria with late anterior opercular syndrome: a variant form of frontal cortical atrophy syndromes. J Neurol Sci. 1996;144:44–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Black, SE. Focal cortical atrophy syndromes. Brain Cogn. 1996;31:188–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Neary, D, Snowden, JS, Gustafson, L, et al.Frontotemporal lobar degeneration: a consensus on clinical diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 1998;51:1546–1554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.The Lund and Manchester Groups. Clinical and neuropathological criteria for frontotemporal dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994;57:416–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47.Hodges, JR. Frontotemporal dementia (Pick's disease): clinical features and assessment. Neurology. 2001;56(suppl 4):S6–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Snowden, JS, Neary, D, Mann, DM, Goulding, PJ, Testa, HJ. Progressive language disorder due to lobar atrophy. Ann Neurol. 1992;31:174–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Westbury, C, Bub, D. Primary progressive aphasia: a review of 112 cases. Brain and Language. 2000;60:381–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50.Garrard, P, Hodges, JR. Semantic dementia: clinical, radiological and pathological perspectives. J Neurol. 2000;247:409–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Kertesz, A, Martinez-Lage, P, Davidson, W, Munoz, DG. The corticobasal degeneration syndrome overlaps progressive aphasia and frontotemporal dementia. Neurology. 2000;55:1368–1375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Mathuranath, PS, Xuereb, JH, Bak, T, Hodges, JR. Corticobasal ganglionic degeneration and/or frontotemporal dementia? A report of two overlap cases and review of literature. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:304–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Pillon, B, Dubois, B. Memory and executive processes in corticobasasl degeneration. In: Litvan, I, Goetz, CG, Lang, AE, eds. Corticobassal Degeneration. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Penn: 2000;91–101.Google ScholarPubMed
54.Martin, A, Brouwers, P, Lalonde, F, et al.Towards a behavioral typology of Alzheimer's patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1986;8:594–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Kramer, JH, Miller, BL. Alzheimer's disease and its focal variants. Semin Neurol. 2000;20:447–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Fisher, NJ, Rourke, BP, Bieliauskas, LA. Neuropsychological subgroups of patients with Alzheimer's disease: an examination of the first 10 years of CERAD data. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1999;21:488–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Williams, RN, McIntosh, DE, Eells, GT, Dean, RS, Hendrie, H. Neuropsychological subgroups of dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Int J Neurosci. 1996;87:79–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Litvan, I, Agid, Y, Sastry, N, et al.What are the obstacles for an accurate clinical diagnosis of Pick's disease? A clinicopathologic study. Neurology. 1997;49:62–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Paolo, AM. Psychometric issues in the clinical assessment of memory in aging and neurodegenerative disease. In: Tröster, AI, ed. Memory in Neurodegenerative Disease: Biological, Cognitive and Clinical Perspectives. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press; 1998:262–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60.Gifford, DR, Cummings, JL. Evaluating dementia screening tests: methodologic standards to rate their performance. Neurology. 1999;52:224–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Welsh, KA, Butters, N, Mohs, RC, et al.The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part V. A normative study of the neuropsychological battery. Neurology. 1994;44:609–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Folstein, MF, Folstein, SE, McHugh, PR. “Mini-mental state.” A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12:189–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Mattis, S. Dementia Rating Scale. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1989.Google Scholar
64.Morris, JC. The Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR): current version and scoring rules. Neurology. 1993;43:2412–2414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Blessed, G, Tomlinson, BE, Roth, M. The association between quantitative measures of dementia and of senile change in the cerebral grey matter of elderly subjects. Br J Psychiatry. 1968;114:797–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66.Reisberg, B, Ferris, SH, de Leon, MJ, Crook, T. The Global Deterioration Scale for assessment of primary degenerative dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:1136–1139.Google ScholarPubMed
67.Mohs, RC. The Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale. Int Psychogeriatr. 1996;8:195–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.Reitan, RM, Wolfson, D. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery: Theory and Clinical Interpretation. Tucson, Ariz: Neuropsychological Press; 1993.Google Scholar
69.Christensen, H, Hadzi-Pavlovic, D, Jacomb, P. The psychometric differentiation of dementia from normal aging: a meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology. 1991;3:145–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70.Roth, M, Tym, E, Mountjoy, CQ, et al.CAMDEX. A standardised instrument for the diagnosis of mental disorder in the elderly with special reference to the early detection of dementia. Br J Psychiatry. 1986;149:698–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.Morgan, CD, Baade, LE. Neuropsychological testing and assessment scales for dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1997;20:25–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Grober, E, Buschke, H, Crystal, H, Bang, S, Dresner, R. Screening for dementia by memory testing. Neurology. 1988;38:900–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73.Delis, DC, Kramer, JH, Freeland, J, Kaplan, E. The California Verbal Learning Test. San Antonio, Tex: 1987.Google Scholar
74.Royall, DR, Cordes, JA, Polk, M. CLOX: an executive clock drawing task. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64:588–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75.Lezak, MD. Neuropsychological Assessment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1995.Google Scholar
76.Spreen, O, Strauss, E. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1991.Google Scholar
77.Kluger, A, Ferris, SH. Scales for the assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1991;14:309–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP, Lim, NG, et al.Range of neuropsychiatric disturbances in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:492–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79.Miller, BL, Darby, A, Benson, DF, Cummings, JL, Miller, MH. Aggressive, socially disruptive and antisocial behaviour associated with fronto-temporal dementia. Br J Psychiatry. 1997;170:150–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80.Reitan, RM, Wolfson, D. Emotional disturbances and their interaction with neuropsychological deficits. Neuropsychol Rev. 1997;7:3–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81.Yesavage, JA, Brink, TL, Rose, TL, et al.Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res. 1982;17:37–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Reisberg, B, Auer, SR, Monteiro, IM. Behavioral pathology in Alzheimer's disease (BEHAVE-AD) rating scale. Int Psychogeriatr. 1996;8(suppl 3):301–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83.Cummings, JL, Mega, M, Gray, K, et al.The Neuropsychiatric Inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology. 1994;44:2308–2314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84.Mack, JL, Patterson, MB. The evaluation of behavioral disturbances in Alzheimer's disease: the utility of three rating scales. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1994;7:99–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Patterson, MB, Bolger, JP. Assessment of behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1994;8(suppl 3):4–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Barber, R, Snowden, JS, Craufurd, D. Frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease: retrospective differentiation using information from informants. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;59:61–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87.Bozeat, S, Gregory, CA, Ralph, MA, Hodges, JR. Which neuropsychiatric and behavioural features distinguish frontal and temporal variants of frontotemporal dementia from Alzheimer's disease? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:178–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Kertesz, A, Nadkami, N, Davidson, W, Thomas, AW. The Frontal Behavioral Inventory in the differential diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2000;6:460–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Bathgate, D, Snowden, JS, Varma, A, Blackshaw, A, Neary, D. Behaviour in frontotemporal dementia, Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Acta Neurol Scand. 2001;103:367–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Lebert, F, Pasquier, F, Souliez, L, Petit, H. Frontotemporal behavioral scale. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1998;12:335–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Perry, RJ, Hodges, JR. Relationship between functional and neuropsychological performance in early Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2000;14:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Pick, A. Zur Symptomatologie der linksseitigen Schläfenlappenatrophie. Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie. 1904;16:378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93.Alzheimer, A. Über eigenartige krankheitsfälle des späteren alters. zeitschrift für die gesamte. Neurologie und Psychiatrie. 1911;4:356–385.Google Scholar
94.Stern, Y, Albert, S, Tang, MX, Tsai, WY. Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve? Neurology. 1999;53:1942–1947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95.Valdois, S, Joanette, Y, Poissant, A, Ska, B, Dehaut, F. Heterogeneity in the cognitive profile of normal elderly. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1990;12:587–596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96.del Ser, T, Hachinski, V, Merskey, H, Munoz, DG. An autopsy-verified study of the effect of education on degenerative dementia. Brain. 1999;122(Pt 12):2309–2319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Geschwind, DH, Robidoux, J, Alarcon, M, et al.Dementia and neurodevelopmental predisposition: cognitive dysfunction in presymptomatic subjects precedes dementia by decades in frontotemporal dementia. Ann Neurol 2001;50:741–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Flicker, C, Ferris, SH, Reisberg, B. Mild cognitive impairment in the elderly: predictors of dementia. Neurology. 1991;41:1006–1009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.Graham, JE, Rockwood, K, Beattie, BL, et al.Prevalence and severity of cognitive impairment with and without dementia in an elderly population. Lancet. 1997;349:1793–1796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.Birren, JE, Fisher, LM. Aging and speed of behavior: possible consequences for psychological functioning. Annu Rev Psychol. 1995;46:329–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Craik, FIM, Anderson, ND, Kerr, SA, Li, KZH. Memory changes in normal aging. In: Baddeley, AD, Wilson, BA, Watts, FN, eds. Handbook of Memory Disorders. Chichester, England: Wiley & Sons; 1995:211–242.Google Scholar
102.Ritchie, K, Artero, S, Touchon, J. Classification criteria for mild cognitive impairment: a population-based validation study. Neurology. 2001;56:37–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Morris, JC, Storandt, M, Miller, JP, et al.Mild cognitive impairment represents early-stage Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:397–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Arai, H, Higuchi, S, Muramatsu, Tet al.Apolipoprotein E gene in diffuse Lewy body disease with or without co-existing Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. 1994;344:1307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Fox, NC, Warrington, EK, Seiffer, AL, Agnew, SK, Rossor, MN. Presymptomatic cognitive deficits in individuals at risk of familial Alzheimer's disease. A longitudinal prospective study. Brain. 1998;121(Pt 9):1631–1639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106.Dujardin, K, Duhamel, A, Becquet, E, et al.Neuropsychological abnormalities in first degree relatives of patients with familial Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;67:323–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Tierney, MC, Szalai, JRSnow, WG, et al.Prediction of probable Alzheimer's disease in memory-impaired patients: a prospective longitudinal study. Neurology. 1996;46:661–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108.Jacobs, DM, Schofield, P. Biological and pychosocial risk factors for dementia and memory loss. In: Tröster, Al, ed. Memory in Neurodegenerative Disease: Biological, Cognitive and Clinical perspectives. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1998:243–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
109.Looi, JC, Sachdev, PS. Differentiation of vascular dementia from AD on neuropsychological tests. Neurology. 1999;53:670–678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
110.Gainotti, G, Marra, C, Villa, G, Parlato, V, Chiarotti, F. Sensitivity and specificity of some neuropsychological markers of Alzheimer dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1998;12:152–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111.Gregory, CA, Hodges, JR. Clinical features of frontal lobe dementia in comparison to Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm Suppl. 1996;47:103–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112.Dalrymple-Alford, J. Comparative neuropsychology of Lewy body and Alzheimer's dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113.Swartz, JR, Miller, BL, Lesser, IM, et al.Behavioral phenomenology in Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal dementia, and late-life depression: a retrospective analysis. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1997;10:67–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114.Koss, E, Edland, S, Fillenhaum, G, et al.Clinical and neuropsychological differences between patients with earlier and later onset of Alzheimer's disease: A CERAD analysis, Part XII. Neurology. 1996;46:136–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Petersen, RC. Clinical subtypes of Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 1998;9(suppl 3):16–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Christensen, H, Griffiths, K, Mackinnon, A, Jacomb, P. A quantitative review of cognitive deficits in depression and Alzheimer-type dementia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1997;3:631–651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Mayeux, R, Stern, Y, Rosen, J, Leventhal, J. Depression, intellectual impairment, and Parkinson disease. Neurology. 1981;31:645–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118.Starkstein, SE, Preziosi, TJ, Berthier, ML, et al.Depression and cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. Brain. 1989;112(Pt 5):1141–1153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Hargrave, R, Geck, LC, Reed, B, Mungas, D. Affective behavioural disturbances in Alzheimer's disease and ischaemic vascular disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120.Spector, WD. Measuring functioning in daily activities for persons with dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1997;11(suppl 6):81–90.Google ScholarPubMed
121.Mack, JL, Whitehouse, PJ. Quality of life in dementia: state of the art-report of the international working group for harmonization of dementia drug guidelines and the alzheimer's society satellite meeting. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2001;15:69–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
122.Fox, GK, Bowden, SC, Bashford, GM, Smith, DS. Alzheimer's disease and driving: prediction and assessment of driving performance. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1997;45:949–953.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Marson, DC, Cody, HA, Ingram, KK, Harrell, LE. Neuropsychologic predictors of competency in Alzheimer's disease using a rational reasons legal standard. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:955–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124.Marson, DC, Ingram, KK, Cody, HA, Harrell, LE. Assessing the competency of patients with Alzheimer's disease under different legal standards. A prototype instrument. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:949–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125.Graber, JR, Paul, RH, Testa, JA, et al.Preserved cognitive skills in neurodegenerative disease. In: Tröster, AI, ed. Memory in Neurodegenerative Disease: Biological, Cognitive and Clinical Perspectives. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1998:338–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
126.Opie, J, Rosewarne, R, O'Connor, DW. The efficacy of psychosocial approaches to behaviour disorders in dementia: a systematic literature review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1999;33:789–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed