1. State Statistical Bureau (SSB), “Communiqué on major figures in the 1982 population census,” Xinhua-English (Beijing), 27 10 1982Google Scholar, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report, China, No. 208 (27 10 1982), pp. K2–5Google Scholar; and State Council Population Census Office and SSB Population Statistics Division, Zhongguo disanci renkou pucha de zhuyao shuzi (Important Data from China's Third Population Census) (Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe), 1 12 1982Google Scholar.

2. A year-end 1981 figure of 138·70 million was given in SSB, Zhongguo tongji nianjian 1981 (Statistical Yearbook of China 1981) (Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe), 08 1982, p. 89Google Scholar.

3. Zhuo, Zhu, “Zhongguo de renkou zengzhang yu fenbu” (“The growth and distribution of the population of China”), Dili zhishi (Geographical Knowledge), No. 11 (11 1982), p. 4Google Scholar.

4. Ullman, Morris B., Cities of Mainland China: 1953 and 1958, International Population Reports, Series P-95, No. 59, Foreign Manpower Research Office, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 08 1981, p. 8Google Scholar.

5. Chengrui, Li, Population Censuses in China, Beijing, SSB, 09 1981, pp. 4–5Google Scholar.

6. Chengrui, Li, “Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang – jian lun zhongguo renkou tongji shuzi de zhunquexing” (“The Chinese population as shown by the population census communiqué – some comments on the accuracy of Chinese population statistics”), Jingji yanjiu (Economic Research), No. 12 (20 12 1982), pp.31–32Google Scholar.

7. There were 193 “towns” with less than 1,000 inhabitants in 1953 and 727 with populations of 1,000 to 2,000. See SSB, “Guanyu chengxiang huafen biaozhun ruogan zhuyao wenti de shuoming” (“Explanation of the criteria established for the demarcation of rural and urban areas”), Xin Hua banyuekan (New China Semi-Monthly), No. 3 (02 1956), pp. 7–8Google Scholar.

8. The national sex ratio was 104·9 in 1965 but was 105·2 in 1978 and 1981. See SSB, Zhongguo tongji nianjian 1981, p. 89Google Scholar.

9. Fan, Yang, “Save the baby girls,” Zhongguo qingnian bao (Chinese Youth Gazette) (Beijing), 9 11 1982Google Scholar; FBIS, No. 235 (7 December 1982), pp. K55–56.

10. Commentator, “Chedi dapo ‘zhong nan qing nü’ de fengjian naojin” (“Thoroughly destroy the feudal idea of ‘preferring males to females’”), Jiankang bao (Health Gazette), 13 January 1983, p. 1; and Yun, Pu, “Ling ren buan de shuzi” (“Disturbing figures”), Gansu ribao (Gansu Daily) (Lanzhou), 19 01 1983, p. 4Google Scholar.

11. State Council Population Census Office and SSB Population Statistics Division, Zhongguo disanci renkou pucha de zhuyao shuzi, pp. 18–19, 27, 29, and 31Google Scholar; The three provinces are Hebei, Zhejiang and Henan.

12. Xinhua (Beijing), 9 December 1982, FBIS, No. 241 (15 December 1982), p. K21.

13. Xinhua-English (Beijing), 13 December 1982, FBIS, No. 240 (14 December 1982), p. Kll.

14. The 1953 figures are from SSB, “Communiqué of results of census and registration of China's population,” Xinhua (Beijing), 1 11 1954Google Scholar; American Consulate General, Hong Kong, Current Background, No. 301 (1 11 1954), p. 2Google Scholar; The 1964 figures were obtained from the 1982 census communiqué; the 1978 figures were given in Tianlu, Zhang, “You jihua di fazhan woguo shaoshu minzu renkou cujin minzu fanrong” (“Develop the population of China's minority nationalities in a planned way to promote the prosperity of the various peoples”), Renkou yu jingji (Population and Economy), No. 1 (1980), p. 28Google Scholar.

15. Jianhua, Bai, “Tian xie hao renkou pucha biao shi tigao renkou pucha zhiliang de guanjian” (“The key to raising the quality of the census is to fill out the census questionnaires well”), Tongji (Statistics) No. 2 (17 04 1982), p. 17Google Scholar.

16. Shenyang radio, Liaoning Provincial Service, 15 August 1981, FBIS, No. 168 (31 August 1981), p. S1.

17. The manual tabulation of the literacy data posed a special problem for the local census workers. Apparently everyone aged six and over who claimed no formal education was included in the sixth response category on the education question. But tabulators were required to make a separate tally of the sixth category persons aged 12 and over, which meant that they had to check the ages of all such persons and eliminate those aged six to 11. The figures on illiteracy and semi-literacy are given both for those aged six and over and those aged 12 and over in the booklet of provincial census results. The difference in the national totals is some 48 million.

18. Chengrui, Li, “Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang,” p. 36Google Scholar.

19. Ibid.

20. British Broadcasting Corporation, Summary of World Broadcasts, Second Series, FE/W1172, 17 02 1982, p. A/1Google Scholar.

21. Population Analysis Team, State Council Population Census Office, and SSB Population Statistics Division, “Guanyu woguo renkou zhuangkuang de jidian fenxi” (“An analysis of several points relating to the population of China”), Renmin ribao (People's Daily) (Beijing), 16 11 1982, p. 5Google Scholar.

22. The Chinese census authorities also estimated the difference between the census and registration totals, but they did it somewhat differently. Starting with the 1982 census total of 1,008·18 million, they assumed that the 1982 natural increase rate was the same as that the census had shown for 1981 and thus estimated a natural increase figure for 1982. Then they assumed that only 45% of the increase occurred in the first half of the year. They subtracted this figure, which they estimated at 6·58 million, and the military component of 4·24 million from the census figure, which gave them a year-end 1981 figure of 997·36 million, 1·14 million larger than the reported year-end 1981 figure based òn registration. See Population Analysis Team, State Council Population Census Office, and SSB Population Statistics Division, “Guanyu woguo renkou zhuangkuang de jidian fenxi,” p. 5Google Scholar.

23. Xinhua-English (Lhasa), 28 October 1982, Joint Publications Research Service (JPRS), No. 82,226 (12 November 1982), p. 174.

24. Xinhua-English (Beijing), 27 October 1982, FBIS, No. 209(28 October 1982), p. K2.

25. Dizhong, Liu (reporter), “Family planning ‘ensures China's population target,’” China Daily, 5 11 1982, p. 1Google Scholar.

26. Chengrui, Li, “Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang,” p. 37Google Scholar.

27. Weizhi, Wang, “Tongguo renkou pucha tigao renkou tongji ziliao de zhiliang” (“To improve the quality of demographic statistics by means of a population census”), Renkou yanjiu (Population Research), No. 1 (29 01 1982), p. 41Google Scholar.

28. Chengrui, Li, Population Censuses in China, p. 17Google Scholar.

29. These were first examined in detail in Aird, John S., “Reconstruction of an official data model of the population of China,” a paper presented at a conference on the population of China held at the East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, in 05 1980Google Scholar; A more elaborate analysis incorporating many historical data for China not available in May 1980 will be given in a forthcoming U.S. Census Bureau report.

30. Mao himself remarked on the latter problem in an interview with Edgar Snow back in 1965. See Snow, Edgar, “Interview with Mao,” The New Republic, 27 02 1965, p. 20Google Scholar.

31. Chengrui, Li, Population Censuses in China, p. 18Google Scholar.

32. Ibid. p. 22.

33. Li, Jin, “The significance of China's third census,” Renmin ribao, 26 02 1982, FBIS, No. 42 (3 03 1982), p. K3Google Scholar.

34. Commentator, “Tigao renshi jiaqiang lingdao gaohao renkou pucha” (“Heighten awareness, strengthen leadership, and do well in population census”), Xinhua ribao (New China Daily) (Nanjing), 2 05 1981, p. 1Google Scholar.

35. “Wosheng chengxiang gedi pupian kaizhan hukou zhengdun gongzuo” (“All urban and rural areas in Sichuan have started to work on straightening out household registration”), Sichuan ribao (Sichuan Daily) (Chengdu), 18 11 1981, p. 3Google Scholar.

36. Commentator, “Get a good grasp of preparations for the population census,” Ningxia ribao (Ningxia Daily) (Yinchuan), 9 02 1982Google Scholar; FBIS, No. 39 (26 February 1982), p. T2.

37. “Jushi zhumu de woguo disanci renkou pucha” (“The eyes of the world are focused on the third national population census of China”), Fujian ribao (Fujian Daily) (Fuzhou), 19 06 1982, p. 2Google Scholar.

38. Chengrui, Li, “Nationwide census – a large-scale investigational study on the basic condition of the State,” Tongji, No. 2 (10 06 1981)Google Scholar; JPRS, No. 79, 635 (10 December 1981), p. 126.

39. Commentator, “Assure quality in rural areas,” Zhongguo nongmin bao (Chinese Peasants' Gazette) (Beijing), 10 06 1982Google Scholar; JPRS. No. 81. 468 (6 August 1982), p. 1.

40. Xingcai, Shang and Dinglong, Wang, “Shijiao bufa sheyuan hukoubu” (“Shanghai suburban districts belatedly issue commune household books”), Jiefang ribao (Liberation Daily) (Shanghai), 10 04 1982, p. 1Google Scholar.

41. Shi, Shang, “Nongcun jianli gongan paichusuo” (“Police substations are being established in rural areas”), Ban yue tan (Semi-Monthly Tribune) (Beijing), Vol. 6, No. 46 (25 03 1982), p. 5Google Scholar.

42. “Guowuyuan pizhuan gonganbu guanyu jiejue youguan luohu wenti de qingshi de tongzhi” (“Circular of the State Council giving approval to the request of the Public Security Ministry for instructions on solving the problem of registering households in rural areas”), State Council Release No. 148 (1982), 17 12 1982Google Scholar; Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guowuyuan gongbao (Bulletin of the State Council of the People's Republic.of China), No. 21 of 1982, 12 02 1983, pp. 1026–1028Google Scholar; Most of these are not people who are avoiding registration but people who have been deliberately kept out of the registers by the local authorities and are still out in spite of the 1981–82 check-up of registration and the census. The source says of them that “A wall is put in front of them and they are squeezed out, creating a large number of ‘black persons and black households.’”

43. Aird, John S., “The preparations for China's 1982 census,” The China Quarterly, No. 91 (09 1982), pp. 381–82 and 383–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44. Kannisto, Vaino and Yu, Y. C., “Plans and preparations for the 1982 population census of China,” paper distributed at the conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, Manila, 12 1981, p. 5Google Scholar.

45. Guangzhou radio, Guangdong Provincial Service, 25 June 1981, FBIS, No. 137 (17 July 1981), p. P1; “Wosheng chengxiang gedi pupian kaizhan hukou zhengdun gongzuo,” p. 3; “Lanqi chengguan zuohao pucha duixiang diaocha modi gongzuo” (“The town of Lanqi did well in getting to the bottom of things regarding persons to be enumerated”), Zhejiang ribao (Zhejiang Daily) (Hangzhou), 18 06 1982, p. 1Google Scholar; Changsha radio, Hunan Provincial Service, 2 September 1981, FBIS, No. 171, 3 September 1981, p. P2; and Xingcai, Shang and Dinglong, Wang, “Shijiao bufa sheyuan hukoubu,” p. 1Google Scholar.

46. E.g. see “Wosheng chengxiang gedi pupian kaizhan hukou zhengdun gongzuo,” p. 3; and “Shuoji gongshe xiqu renkou pucha shidian zhong de jiaoxun caiqu sanxiang cuoshi cujin mianshang pucha zhunbei” (“Shuoji commune learned lessons from the population census pre-test and adopted three measures to promote census preparations”), Xinhua ribao, 18 June 1982, p. 1.

47. “Quanqu renkou pucha gongzuo jinru jingzhang zhunbei jieduan” (“Population census work in the region enters into an intensive preparation period”), Ningxia ribao, 9 February 1982, p. 1.

48. In mid May, Zhejiang province called on all areas to intensify their mobilization and take further steps to implement central and provincial directives. They were told that they must complete their household registration work prior to 15 June. See “Sheng zhengfu zhaokai dianhua huiyi yaoqiu gedi zuohao zhoumi anpai yingjie renkou pucha” (“The Zhejiang provincial government held a telephone conference to demand that all areas carry out careful arrangements to greet the population census”), Zhejiang ribao, 18 May 1982, p. 1.

49. Jin, Wang, “Zuohao renkou pucha de xuanchuan gongzuo” (“Population census propaganda work must be done well”), Renkou yanjiu, 29 03 1982, p. 34Google Scholar.

50. Chengrui, Li, “Renkou pucha gongzuo yiding yao dadao gao zhiliang” (“Population census work must achieve high quality”), Renmin ribao, 22 06 1982, p. 5Google Scholar.

51. Chengrui, Li, Population Censuses in China, p. 8Google Scholar; Li says, “On the basis of the updating of household registers, census workers … made a complete list of households, with the names of heads of households, who must be enumerated in the census, along with their place of residence as well as the number of people to be enumerated in a given area.…”

52. Jianhua, Bai, “Tian xie hao renkou pucha biao shi tigao renkou pucha zhiliang de guanjian,” p. 17Google Scholar.

53. Disanci quanguo renkou pucha shishi xize zhi san – renkou pucha dengji pucha gongzuo xize (Third Nationwide Population Census Detailed Field Regulations, No. 3 – Detailed Regulations on the Work of Census Enumeration and Verification), no date or place of publication, p. ..

54. Chengrui, Li, “Guanyu ‘disanci quanguo renkou pucha banfa’ de shuoming he renkou pucha gongzuo anpai de yijian (zhaiyao)” (“An explanation of the ‘measures governing the third national population census’ and views on arrangements made for the census work [abstract]”), Tongji, No. 2 (17 04 1982), p. 13Google Scholar; Yang Rizhang, “Renkou pucha dengji zhiliang de chouyang jiancha” (“The sample quality survey of the population census”), ibid. p. 18; and Chengrui, Li, “Renkou pucha gongzuo yiding yao dadao gao zhiliang,” p. 5Google Scholar; Such shortcuts had been discovered during the pre-tests. See Xiangfu, Mei and Congde, Wei, “Canjia Zhengzhoushi Beixiajie renkou pucha shidian de tihui” (“What we have learned from participating in the census pre-test conducted at the Beixiajie neighbourhood of Zhengzhou municipality”),Tongji, No. 2 (17 04 1982), p. 24Google Scholar.

55. Commentator, “Usher in the third nationwide census,” Renmin ribao, 18 January 1982, FBIS, No. 20 (29 01 1982), p. K2Google Scholar; “Sheng renkou pucha bangongshi fachu tongzhi yaoqiu gedi qieshi zhuyi renkou pucha dengji de zhiliang” (“The Zhejiang provincial population census office issues a circular requesting that all areas earnestly pay attention to the quality of the census registration”), Zhejiang ribao, 6 July 1982, p. 1; and Qingpu, Meng, “Gaohao shougong huizong baozheng pucha shuzi zhiliang” (“Do well the manual tabulations to assure the quality of the census figures”), Tongji, No. 3 (17 06 1982), p. 32Google Scholar.

56. Chengrui, Li, “Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang,” p. 36Google Scholar.

57. Wenruo, Hou, “How to interpret the census communiqué,” Beijing Review, No. 48 (29 11 1982), p. 13Google Scholar.

58. SSB, “Communiqué of results of census and registration of China's population,” 1 11 1954Google Scholar; The text of this communiqué was reprinted in the SSB journal Statistics in October 1981. See annex to Jingxin, Sun, “A brief introduction to the first nationwide census,” Tongji, No. 4 (10 10 1981)Google Scholar; JPRS, No. 79,882 (18 January 1982), p. 49.

59. Chengrui, Li, Population Censuses in China, p. 5Google Scholar.

60. Rizhang, Yang, “Random sampling of quality after the population census,” Renkou yanjiu. No. 3 (29 05 1982)Google Scholar; JPRS, No. 81,560 (17 August 1982), p. 63. Local press reports indicated that the procedures used in 1953 varied widely. Some units did fairly conscientious and effective work and found large errors. Others did perfunctory work, and in at least one case the recheck consisted of calling a meeting of residents and asking if they knew of any errors in the census, and, of course, none was found. The errors reported by units that did a good job of rechecking were divided by the population in all the units reporting, most cf which claimed virtually total accuracy, hence the very low error rates. Presumably something similar happened in 1964. For a review and interpretation of the evidence on the 1953 “recheck” operations, see Aird, John S., “Population growth,” Chap. 4 in Eckstein, Alexander, Galenson, Walter, and Liu, Ta-chung (eds.), Economic Trends in Communist China (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1968), pp. 239–42Google Scholar.

61. E.g. in a large province the 10 units were selected by listing all of the county-level units, dividing the number of units by 10, and taking the result as the interval between selected units. The number of the initial selection was then chosen by lot. These specifications are laid down in the census manual on the post-enumeration survey. See Disanci quanguo renkou pucha shishi xize zhi si – renkou pucha dengji zhiliang chouyang jiancha xize (Third Nationwide Population Census Detailed Field Regulations, No. 4 – Detailed Regulations on the Random Sample Quality Check), no date or place of publication, pp. 8–10.

62. Chengrui, Li, “Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang,” p. 35Google Scholar.

63. Rizhang, Yang, “Random sampling of quality,” p. 65Google Scholar.

64. “Guangdongsheng tongjiju gongbu wosheng disanci renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi” (“The Guangdong Provincial Statistical Bureau announces the major figures of the third population census in Guangdong”), Nanfang ribao (Southern Daily) (Guangzhou), 31 10 1982, p. 2Google Scholar.

65. “Sheng tongjiju gongbu wosheng renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi” (“Provincial Statistical Bureau publishes major figures of the population census in our province”), Sichuan ribao, 2 November 1982, p. 1; and “Ningxia Huizu zizhiqu tongjiju guanyu quanqu 1982-nian renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi de gongbao” (“Communiqué of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Regional Statistical Bureau on the major figures of the 1982 population census of the region”), Ningxia ribao, 29 October 1982, p. 1.

66. “Sheng tongjiju gongbu wosheng renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi” (“Provincial Statistical Bureau publishes the major figures of the population census in our province”), Yunnan ribao (Yunnan Daily) (Kunming), 29 10 1982, p. 2Google Scholar; Changchun radio, Jilin Provincial Service, 5 November 1982; and “Shi tongjiju gongbu jinnian benshi renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi” (“The Municipal Statistical Bureau announces the major figures of this year's population census for our municipality”), Beijing ribao (Beijing Daily) (Beijing), 29 10 1982, p. 4Google Scholar.

67. Xinhua, Beijing, 28 May 1982, FBIS, No. 106 (2 June 1982), p. K10; and Chengrui, Li, “Renkou pucha gongzuo yiding yao dadao gao zhiliang,” p. 5Google Scholar; and Disanci quanguo renkou pucha shishi xize zhi san, p. 1.

68. Quoted in “China undertaking largest head count in world's history,” Popline (Washington, D.C.), Vol. 4, No. 7 (07 1982), p. 2Google Scholar.

69. Xinhua-English (Beijing), 21 December 1982, FBIS, No. 248 (27 December 1982), p. K8.

70. Xinhua-English (Beijing), 2 September 1982, FBIS, No. 172 (3 September 1982), p. K24; and Xinhua (Beijing), 8 April 1983, FBIS, No. 70(11 April 1983), p. K14.

71. Population Analysis Team, State Council Population Census Office and SSB Population Statistics Division, “Guanyu woguo renkou zhuangkuang de jidian fenxi,” p. 5Google Scholar.

72. Chengrui, Li, Cong renkou pucha gongbao kan zhongguo renkou de xianzhuang,” p. 37Google Scholar.

73. For a discussion of falsification in Chinese statistics, see Aird, John S., “Recent demographic data from China: problems and prospects,” China Under the Four Modernizations, Part 1, Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 13 08 1982, pp. 204–213Google Scholar.

74. Shijie ditu ce (Atlas of China) (Beijing: Ditu chubanshe, 02 1972)Google Scholar.

75. “Zhongguo renkou congshu bianxie choubei huiyi zongshu” (“A summary of the preparatory meeting for the compilation of Serial Monographs on the Population of China”), Renkou yu jingji, No. 2 (25 04 1982), pp. 8–9Google Scholar; This source specifies 31 volumes, but it has since been reported that a volume on Hong Kong and Macao has been added.

76. Weizhi, Wang, “Renkou pucha zhiliao de huizong yu gongbu” (“The tabulation and publication of the population census data”), Renkou yanjiu, No. 4 (29 07 1982), p. 24Google Scholar; This source says that the results of a 10% sample machine tabulation of census returns will also be published in advance of the full-scale tabulations.

77. Ibid. pp. 23–24.

78. SSB, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo disanci renkou pucha Jiangsu sheng Wuxi shi he Wuxi xian shidian ziliao huibian (The Third National Population Census of the People's Republic of China Compilation of Statistics from the Pilot Census of Wuxi City and Wuxi County, Jiangsu Province) (Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House), 07 1982Google Scholar.

79. State Council Population Census Office and SSB Population Statistics Division, Zhongguo disanci renkou pucha zhuyao shuzi, pp. 11Google Scholar and 33–38. The 1964 data include the military but the 1953 data do not.