¹ “Communist Deputy Mayor and Other Functionaries in Canton Take Part in the Collection of Night-Soil,” Survey of the China Mainland Press (SCMP) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 3388, from Yang-ch'eng Wan-pao (Canton Evening News), January 9, 1965.

² For example: Ping, Teng, “Questions in Relation to the Elimination of the Difference Between Manual Labor and Mental Labor,” Current Background (CB) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 642Google Scholar, from Kuang-ming Daily, September 26, 1960.

³ The existing separation between mental and manual labour is essentially a combination of two “contradictions” mentioned by Mao Tse-tung in his speech “On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People.” One was between the “intelligentsia” and the workers and peasants, and the other was between “those in positions of leadership and the led.” FromTse-tung, Mao, On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (New York: New Century, 1957), p. 4Google Scholar.

⁴ The Chinese régime views labour participation for its “creative” intellectuals as a means of inducing them to stress productive themes in their work. “Art for art's sake” is, perhaps, somewhat irrelevant in a society which is attempting to mobilise all of its resources for rapid economic development and which regards each of its members in terms of his contribution to social productivity.

⁵ Chao, Wen, “Why Cadres Take Part in Physical Labour,” China Reconstructs, XIV, No. 3 (03 1965)Google Scholar.

⁶ “The Main Task on the Present Production Front,” SCMP, No. 2389, from Peking Daily, August 25, 1960.

⁷ “To Transfer Cadres Downward to Bolster the Agricultural Front is of the Greatest Strategic Significance”, Selections from China Mainland Magazines (SCMM) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 241, from Chung-kuo Ch'ing-nien (China Youth), 10 16, 1960Google Scholar.

⁸ “Organise the Flow of Cadres Between the Cities and the Countryside”, SCMP, No. 2354, from Peking Daily, 09 6, 1960Google Scholar.

⁹ Fang, Li, “Back from the Countryside”, Peking Review, No. 6 (02 10, 1959)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ “Party Directive on the Rectification Campaign”, SCMP, No. 1523, from New China News Agency (NCNA), Peking, 04 30, 1957Google Scholar.

¹¹ Wen Chao, note 5 above. The Chinese Communists regard hsia fang as the continuation of a “revolutionary tradition.”

¹² Wen Chao.

¹³ Fei tang pa chuan ta hui chueh i an chih tzung he yen chiu. Fa hsing cheng pu tiao ch'a chu pien yin (Formosa: 1956), p. 382Google Scholar.

¹⁴ En-lai, Chou, Report on the Proposals for the 2nd Five Year Plan for Development of the National Economy (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1956), p. 101Google Scholar.

¹⁵ “Administrative Districts in Kiangsi Transfer Cadres to Reinforce Basic levels”, SCMP, No. 1482, from NCNA, Nanchang, 01 11, 1957Google Scholar.

¹⁶ “Shansi Transfers over 4,000 Cadres to Rural Areas”, SCMP, No. 1464, from NCNA, Taiyuan, 01 21, 1957Google Scholar.

¹⁷ “Party and Government Leadership Organs Adopt Measures to Alter Leadership Style and Close Ties with the Masses”, SCMP, No. 1466, from NCNA, Peking, 01 17, 1957Google Scholar.

¹⁸ “Ranking Cadres in Anhwei Transferred to Rural Areas”, SCMP, No. 1464, from NCNA, 01 16, 1957Google Scholar.

¹⁹ See note 17, above.

²⁰ Mao Tse-tung, note 3, above, pp. 30–31.

²¹ “Party Directive on the Rectification Campaign”, p. 40.

²² Ibid., p. 42.

²³ “Leadership Personnel Throughout the Country Participate in Physical LaborTogether with the Masses”, SCMP, No. 1538, from People's Daily, 05 10, 1957Google Scholar.

²⁴ Lewis, John Wilson, Leadership in Communist China (Ithaca: Cornell Un. Press, 1963), p. 221Google Scholar.

²⁵ “100,000 Cadres Return to Production Posts; 200,000 Cadres Go Down to Basic Level”, SCMP, No. 1620, from People's Daily, 09 11, 1957Google Scholar.

²⁶ “Over 810,000 Cadres in Whole Nation Transferred to Lower Levels”, SCMP, No. 1668, from NCNA, Peking, 11 26, 1957Google Scholar.

²⁷ “New Progress Reported in China's Cadre Work; Number of Transferred Cadres Reaches 1,300,000”, SCMP, No. 1724, from NCNA, Peking, 02 23, 1958Google Scholar.

The highest figure I found was at Anshan Steel Works where nearly 20,000 cadres or 60 per cent, of the existing management personnel were sent to “strengthen basic level units” or to “engage in agricultural or industrial production”:

“Departments under Anshan Steel Works to Send Down Nearly 20,000 Cadres”, SCMP, No. 1675, from NCNA, Anshan, 12 5, 1957Google Scholar.

²⁸ “Repor t on the Simplification of Organs in Kiangsi”, SCMP, No. 1710, from Kiangsi Daily, 11 30, 1957Google Scholar.

²⁹ “Kwangtung to Transfer 100,000 Cadres to Lower Level”, SCMP, No. 1683, from People's Daily, 12 9, 1957Google Scholar; “Kiangsu Province to Send 130,000 Cadres to Basic Level”, SCMP, No. 1657, from People's Daily, 11 1, 1957Google Scholar.

³⁰ “Over 23,000 Cadres in Kiangsu Sent Down to Basic Level”, SCMP, No. 1643, from People's Daily, 10 13, 1957Google Scholar.

³¹ See note 28, above.

³² “Liaoning Overfulfils Target of Sending 200,000 Cadres to Lower Echelons”, SCMP, No. 1723, from Liaoning Daily, 11 11, 1957Google Scholar.

³³ “Shensi Province to Detail Over 60,000 Cadres to Reinforce Basic-Level and Labor in Rural or Mountainous Areas”, SCMP, No. 1643, from NCNA, Sian, 10 27, 1957Google Scholar.

³⁴ “Overall Streamlining of Anhwei Organs from Provincial to Hsiang Level; Large Numbers of Cadres Transferred to Productive Posts”, SCMP, No. 1643, from People's Daily, 10 9, 1957Google Scholar.

³⁵ Li Fang, note 9, above, p. 10.

³⁶ “CCP Central Committee and State Council Publish Decision on Cadres Taking Part in Physical Labor”, SCMP, No. 1869, from NCNA, Peking, 09 29, 1958Google Scholar. (Published September 25.)

³⁷ Lewis, note 24, above, p. 229.

³⁸ “100,000 Cadres in Honan Transferred to Front Line in Production”, SCMP, No. 2282, from NCNA, Chengchow, 06 13, 1960Google Scholar.

³⁹ “‘The Two-Five System’ Popularised in Hopei”, SCMP, No. 2286, from People's Daily, 06 16, 1960Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Wuch'iao CCP Hsien Committee, “Results and Experience of the Implementation of the ‘Two-Five System,’” SCMP, No. 2286, from People's Daily, 06 16, 1960Google Scholar.

⁴¹ T'ieh, Lin, “Develop a Marxist Movement for Improving the Method and Style of Leadership”, SCMP, No. 2307, from People's Daily, 1960Google Scholar. Also Hsia, T. A., A Terminological Study of the Movement, Studies in Chinese Communist Terminology, No. 10 (Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of International Studies, 1963), p. 46Google Scholar.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Lin T'ieh, note 39, above.

⁴⁴ “Leadership Cadres Must Get Hold of First Hand Information”, SCMP, No. 2506, from People's Daily, 05 12, 1961Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ “Without Squatting at a Point One Cannot Direct Over the Whole Surface”, SCMP, No. 3300, from People's Daily, 08 26, 1964Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ See note 44, above.

⁴⁷ Hsia, pp. 48–49.

⁴⁸ See note 45, above.

⁴⁹ Hsia, pp. 52–53.

⁵⁰ Ta-chang, Li, “Steadfastly Uphold the System of Participation in Collective Productive Labor by Cadres”, SCMP, No. 3387, from People's Daily, 01 16, 1965Google Scholar.

⁵¹ “A Labor System That Has Great Vitality”, SCMP, No. 3325 from Southern Daily, 09 22, 1964Google Scholar.

⁵² The Chinese Communists' emphasis on collectivism apparently departs from Marx, although the Maoist vision of the future society as one “marked by radical collectivism” may be regarded as a derivation of the Marxist vision of the future man as a non-acquisitive being. SeeSchwartz, Benjamin, “Modernisation and the Maoist Vision”, The China Quarterly, No. 21 (01–03 1965), p. 11CrossRefGoogle Scholar. According to the arguments presented above, the increased collectivist emphasis would be a consequence of China's low level of economic development.

⁵³ Chieh, Liu, “Should We Long for Communism or Hedonism?” SCMP, No. 3146, from Southern Daily, 12 19, 1963Google Scholar. Articles by Ch'en Ting and others were refuted in this piece.

⁵⁴ Ting, Ch'en, “Living Well is Happiness”, SCMP, No. 3145, from Southern Daily, 12 5, 1963Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Kan, Nan, “The Communist's Outlook o n Material Life”, SCMP, No. 3041, from Southern Daily, 07 13, 1963Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Bottomore, T. B., Karl Marx: Selected Writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy (New York: McGraw Hill, 1964), p. 258Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ Ta, Li, “Mental Labor an d Physical Labor, Now Disunited, Must Inevitably Be United”, SCMP, No. 1993, from People's Daily, 04 3, 1959Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ “We Must Firmly Follow the Road to Transformation of Intellectuals into Laborers”, CB, No. 642, from China Youth, 09 26, 1960Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ See note 2, above.

⁶⁰ See note 58, above.

⁶¹ “CCP Central Committee Directive on Physical Labor”, SCMP, No. 1532, from NCNA, Peking, 05 14, 1957Google Scholar.

⁶² “A Question of Vital Importance”, SCMP, No. 3023, from China Youth Daily, 06 29, 1963Google Scholar.

⁶³ “Only by Persevering in Labor will Cadres Be Able to Persevere in Revolution”, SCMP, No. 3298, from People's Daily, 08 28, 1964Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Riggs, Fred, Administration in Developing Countries. The Theory of Prismatic Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), pp. 119–120Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ See note 62, above.

⁶⁶ Tse-tung, Mao, Selected Works, Vol. IVGoogle Scholar; see note 54, above.

⁶⁷ “A Good Example of Imposing Exacting Demands Upon Oneself”, SCMP, No. 2980, from Southern Daily, 04 20, 1963Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Liao-chou, Ch'ih, “Profound Revolutionary Significance of ‘Going Down to the Countryside and Up the Mountainous Areas,’” SCMP, No. 1673, from People's Daily, 11 25, 1957Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ “Onward to the Goal of ‘Thoroughly Red and Profoundly Expert,’” SCMP, No. 1747, from People's Daily, 03 23, 1958Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Mao Tse-tung, pp. 29–31.

⁷¹ See note 69, above.

⁷² See note 69, above. Parsonian pattern variables are of little help in analysing “redness” since it is neither an ascriptive nor achievement criterion. I would call it a “modernisational” criterion, in accordance with the thesis presented above.

⁷³ Ibid.

⁷⁴ See note 68, above.

⁷⁵ Doolin, Dennis, “Both Red and Expert. The Dilemma of the Chinese Intellectual”, Current Scene, II, No. 19, p. 7Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ An extreme example of the “misuse of talent” is the engineer or technician from an underdeveloped country who is trained in the United States and who somehow never manages to find his way back to his homeland, thus defeating the original purpose of his training.

⁷⁷ Quoted in “Participation in Collective Productive Labor is of Fundamental Importance under the Socialist System”, SCMM, No. 376, from Hung Ch'i (Red Flag), Nos. 13–14 (07 10, 1963)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ “What Does Divorce from Labor Mean?” SCMP, No. 3035, from People's Daily, 07 17, 1963Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ “The Great Economic Significance of Cadres' Participation in Labor”, SCMP, No. 3059, from People's Daily, 08 29, 1963Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Riggs, note 64, above, pp. 22–38.

⁸¹ “Resolutely Streamline Organs, Retrench Personnel and Improve Work”, SCMP, No. 1657, from People's Daily, 11 17, 1957Google Scholar.

The central government in Peking is still a fair example of structural proliferation. In 1965, under the State Council there was a General Office of Industry and Communications headed by Po I-po, a State Economic Commission, also under Po I-po, eight Ministries of Machine Building, two Ministries of Light Industry, a Ministry of Textile Industry, a Ministry of Communications and a Ministry of Telecommunications. Also, a General Office of Finance and Trade, a Ministry of Foreign Trade, a Central Bureau of Foreign Economic Relations; a General Office of Agriculture and Forestry, a Ministry of Agriculture, a Ministry ot Forestry, a Ministry of Food and a Ministry of State Farms:

Jen-min Shou-tse (People's Handbook) (Peking: Ta Kung Pao She, 1965), pp. 125–127Google Scholar.

⁸² “Large Numbers of Cadres in Kiangsi Sent Down as Commune Members”, SCMP, No. 1767, from People's Daily, 02 18, 1959Google Scholar.

⁸³ “The Great Revolutionary Significance of Participation in Labor by Cadres”, SCMP, No. 3006, from People's Daily, 06 2, 1963Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ Ibid.

⁸⁵ See Red Flag article in SCMM, note 77, above, p. 3.

⁸⁶ See note 81, above.

⁸⁷ “Firmly Uphold the System of Participation in Physical Labor by Cadres”, SCMP, No. 3014, from People's Daily, 06 27, 1963Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ See note 77, above, p. 2.

⁸⁹ “Central Government Personnel Accomplish Much in Physical Labor”, NCNA, Peking, 02 2, 1959Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Feng, Huang and Yen-liang, Cho, “Education by Example is Better than Education by Words”, SCMP, No. 3145, from Southern Daily, 11 26, 1963Google Scholar.

⁹¹ “48 Factory Managers and Party Secretaries Work in Workshops in Tientsin”, SCMP, No. 1974, from People's Daily, 03 4, 1959Google Scholar. See also “Manual Labor for Cadres in Hunan Province”, SCMP, No. 2232, from Hsin Hunan Pao, 02 11, 1960Google Scholar.

⁹² See note 77, above.

⁹³ Hsia, p. 37.

⁹⁴ Tieh, Lin, “Develop a Marxist Movement for Improving the Method and Style of Leadership”, SCMP, No. 2307, from People's Daily, 07 13, 1960Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ See note 77, above.

⁹⁶ “Cadres in Swatow Administrative District Go to Front Line in Production and Battle Against Drought”, SCMP, No. 2282.

⁹⁷ See note 77, above.

⁹⁸ T'ung, Pao, “Fear of Hardship is the Beginning of ‘Peaceful Evolution,’” SCMP, No. 3329, from China Youth Daily, 10 13, 1964Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ This is not a criticism of Weber, but of the application of his organisational model to materially backward societies. What is “rational” at one stage of economic growth is not necessarily rational at another; what is good for modernity may not be good for modernisation.

¹⁰⁰ Riggs, pp. 79–81.