¹ The Mandarin term for “Chinese abroad.”Google Scholar

² The term “Nanyang” here is used synonomously with “Southeast Asia.”Google Scholar

³ Virtually all Nanyang Chinese are of South China origin: Cantonese, Fukkienese, Teochiu, Hakka, and Hainanese. These “ speech group” distinctions are also primary determinants of Chinese social organisation in South-East Asia.Google Scholar

⁴ The ban on newspapers now has been relaxed, although with no significant increase in the number of publications.Google Scholar

⁵ Skinner, G. W., “The Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia,” Annals of the American Academy of the Arts and Sciences, January 1959, p. 138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Ibid., p. 137.

⁷ Skinner, G. W., Chinese Society in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957), p. 381.Google Scholar

⁸ Purcell, V., The Chinese in Southeast Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 432.Google Scholar

⁹ Coughlin, R. J., Double Identity: The Chinese in Modern Thailand (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960), p. 148.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Skinner, G. W., Chinese Society in Thailand, op. cit., p. 227. All statistics and most general information pertaining to Thailand up to 1955 are taken from this study.Google Scholar

¹¹ Ibid., p. 285.

^{12, 13} 1958 figures are taken from: R. J. Coughlin, op. cit., p. 151.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ibid., p. 153.

¹⁵ Skinner, G. W., “The Chinese Minority,” in Indonesia, edited by Ruth, McVey (New Haven: Human Relations Area Files, 1963), p. 111.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Ibid., p. 112.

¹⁷ Skinner, G. W., Chinese Society in Thailand, op. cit., p. 227.Google Scholar

¹⁸ R. van Diffelin, quoted in V. Purcell, op. cit., p. 531. By 1937, over 30,000 were enrolled in 106 Dutch-Chinese schools. See Hutasoit, M., Compulsory Education in Indonesia (UNESCO, 1954), p. 80.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Finkelstein, L. S., “Education in Indonesia,” Far Eastern Survey, August 22, 1951;CrossRefGoogle Scholar quoted in Thompson, V. and Adloff, R., Minority Problems in Southeast Asia (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1955), p. 52.Google Scholar

²⁰ Hutasoit, M., Compulsory Education in Indonesia (UNESCO, 1954), p. 81.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid.

²² Skinner, G. W., “The Chinese of Java,” in Colloquium on Overseas Chinese, edited by Fried, M. H. (Institute of Pacific Relations, 1958), p. 4.Google Scholar

²³ Union Research Service, Hong Kong, December 4, 1959, p. 268.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ibid., December 1, 1959, p. 258. The claim undoubtedly is exaggerated.

²⁵ Williams, L., “Sino-Indonesian Diplomacy: a Study of Revolutionary International Politics,” The China Quarterly, No. 11, p. 192.Google Scholar

²⁶ Union Research Service, December 4, 1959, op. cit.Google Scholar

²⁷ Information was provided in private correspondence by Miss Mary Somers of Cornell University.Google Scholar

²⁸ G. W. Skinner, “The Chinese Minority,” op. cit., p. 114.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid.

³⁰ Annual Report on Public Instruction in Burma, 1935–36, quoted by Purcell, V., op. cit., p. 95.Google Scholar

³¹ V. Purcell, op. cit., p. 95.Google Scholar

³² V. Thompson and R. Adloff, op. cit., p. 56.Google Scholar

³³ Directory, Chinese Schools in Burma, compiled by Chan, K. G. (Rangoon: December 1962). All 1959 and 1962 data are from this source.Google Scholar

³⁴ Elegant, R., The Dragon's Seed (London: St. Martin's Press, 1959), p. 254.Google Scholar

³⁵ Directory, Chinese Schools in Burma, op. cit., p. 1.Google Scholar

³⁶ Ibid.

³⁷ Information on Chinese education in Laos and Cambodia was generously provided in private correspondence by two gentlemen to whom I am greatly indebted: data on Cambodia is from William Willmott, London School of Economics, who recently completed a year of field research on Chinese communities there; data on Laos for both 1959 and 1963 is from John T. S. Chen, of Hong Kong, who lived in Laos for several years.Google Scholar

³⁸ South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), October 2, 1962.Google Scholar

³⁹ Hong Kong Tiger Standard, October 11, 1962.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ l'Annuaire Statistique Retrospectif du Cambodge (1937–1957) (Phnom Penh: Ministère du Plan, 1958), p. 24.Google ScholarAn unofficial source put 1952 enrolment around 15,000. Steinberg, D. J., Cambodia: its People, its Society, its Culture (New Haven: Human Relations Area File, 1959), p. 256.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Government statistics provided by William Willmott, unless otherwise noted.Google Scholar

⁴² Ly, Y-ming, “The Chinese in Vietnam,” Viet-My (Saigon: The Vietnamese-American Association), V, No. 3, 1960.Google Scholar

⁴³ Skinner, G. W., Report on the Chinese in Southeast Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1950), reported in Thompson and Adloff, op. cit., p. 58.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Ly, op. cit.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ News From Vietnam (Embassy of the Republic of Vietnam, Washington, D.C.), VI, 1960.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Free China Review (Taipei), August 1963, p. 66.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Hildreth, E. E., “The Challenge in Education,” in Vietnam: the First Five Years (Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press, 1959), p. 155.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ News From Vietnam, op. cit., IV, No. 20, 1958.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Pike, Edgar N., “Public and Private Education in Vietnam,” Asian Culture (Saigon), April-June 1960, p. 4.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Ly, op. cit.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Hong Kong Tiger Standard, March 12, 1962.Google Scholar

⁵² Taiwan Jong-yang Jih-pao, March 7, 1961. This report put the number of primary schools between 135–140, joint primary-secondary at 14, and secondary at 2.Google Scholar

⁵³ Free China Review (Taipei), September 1963, p. 63. All 1963 figures are from this source.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ “Elementary and Secondary Curricula in Chinese Schools,” Circular No. 3, s. 1956; (Manila: Department of Education, Bureau of Private Schools, May 16, 1960).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Hong Kong Tiger Standard, March 12, 1962.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Appleton, S., “Communism and the Chinese in the Philippines,” Pacific Affairs, December 1959, p. 392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁷ Manila Times dispatch, quoted in The Asian Student (San Franciso), May 30, 1964.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Comber, L., “Chinese Education: Perennial Malayan Problem,” Asian Survey, October 1961, p. 30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁹ The Straits Times, October 25, 1963.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ For example, in 1962 no separate, full-time Malay-medium secondary schools operated in the Federation, though about 13,200 students attended Malay secondary classes attached to other schools.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Ministry of Education Annual Report, 1961 (Singapore: 1962).Google Scholar

⁶² Government-aided private schools: 241, with 45,450 pupils. Local authority schools: 9, with 1,100 pupils. Church and Mission schools: 10, with 2,600 pupils. Unaided private and estate schools: 5–10, about 1,000 pupils. See Sarawak Annual Report, 1961 (Kuching: 1962).Google Scholar

⁶³ Government-aided private schools: 87, with 21,000 pupils. Government (6), Mission (21), and unaided private and estate schools together enrolled about 4,000. See North Borneo Annual Report, 1961 (Jesselton: 1962).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ North Borneo Annual Report, 1962 (Jesselton: 1963). Government-aided Chinese private schools enrolled 24,400; total for all Chinese schools is my estimate.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Dale, M., “Chinese Education in Malaya,” Far Eastern Economic Review, February 8, 1962.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ The Observer (London) August 18, 1963.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Lu, Yu-sun, Programs of Communist China for Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Union Research Institute, 1956). Totals for overseas Chinese students going to the mainland appear to include those from Hong Kong and Macao.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Ho, Hsiang-ning, “Rising Patriotism of Overseas Chinese,” speech of July 11, 1957, reported in Current Background, No. 467 (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate General, 1957).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Jack, Chow, “Overseas Students on the Mainland,” Hong Kong Tiger Standard, December 17, 1962.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Union Research Service, op. cit., February 15, 1963, p. 214.Google Scholar

⁷² Ho Hsiang-ning, op. cit.Google Scholar

⁷³ Chow, op. cit.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Union Research Service, ibid. p. 215.

⁷⁵ China Yearbook 1959–60 (Taipei: 1960).Google Scholar

⁷⁶ China Yearbook 1962–63 (Taipei: 1963), p. 304.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Assuming that no more than half those in mainland China were studying below the university level.Google Scholar