Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-42gr6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T18:04:02.430Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: a comparative review of aspects of the social bond

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

D. W. Rajecki ,
Michael E. Lamb  and
Pauline Obmascher
D. W. Rajecki
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisc. 53706
Michael E. Lamb
Affiliation:
Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109
Pauline Obmascher
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wise. 53706
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This critical appraisal of contemporary interpretations in the area of infantile attachment begins with an outline of the principal features of the Bowlby-Ainsworth ethological theory, the instrumental/operant learning theory of Gewirtz, and Hoffman's classical conditioning model. Some attention is also given to Cairns's contiguity learning analysis and the Hoffman-Solomon opponentprocess model Discussion of these theories is followed by a review of representative data from infants at four phyletic levels (precocial birds, dogs, monkeys, and human beings), with an emphasis on three aspects of social bonding: (a) the formation and persistence of social ties in the infant under conditions of maltreatment, (b) the role of the attachment object in the adjustment of the infant to the broader environment (the so-called secure base effect), and (c) the infant's reaction to involuntary separation from the attachment object.

An attempt is made to judge how well each of the interpretations accounts for all or part of the data, with the conclusion that current theories do not accord completely with documented attachment phenomena. The following criticisms are highlighted: Ethological theory emphasizes that infants' behavior systems have been shaped by the ordinarily expectable environment and depend on that environment for their functioning, yet infants of many species form bonds to objects not typical in any species' environment, or even to sources of maltreatment. Learning theory is faulted for making predictions contradicted by the maltreatment data and for a lack of formal mechanisms to account for the secure base and separation effects. The contiguity analysis is criticized for its inability to account for the emergence of certain response patterns during separation, and the opponent-process model is called into question because of its failure to fit important affective dynamics of social separation (a central focus of this theory). Recommendations for future theories of attachment are offered.

Keywords

attachmentethological theoryimprintinginfantlearning theorymaltreatmentopponent-process theorysecure basesocial separation.
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 1 , Issue 3 , September 1978 , pp. 417 - 436
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1978

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, M. D. S. The development of infant-mother interaction among the Ganda. In: Foss, B. M. (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behavior II. London: Methuen, 1963.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S.Patterns of attachment behavior shown by the infant in interaction with his mother. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 10:51–58. 1964Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S.Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Attachment. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S.Object relations, dependency and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Development. 40:969–1025. 1969.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. Attachment and dependency: A comparison. In: Gewirtz, J. L. (ed.), Attachment and Dependency. Washington, D.C.: Winston, 1972.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. The development of infant-mother attachment. In: Caldwell, B. M. and Ricciuti, H. N. (eds.), Review of child Development Research, vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., and Stayton, D. J. Individual differences in strange situation behavior of one-year-olds. In: Schaffer, H. R. (ed.), The Origins of Human Social Relations. Pp. 17–52. London: Academic Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. Infant-mother attachment and social development: Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In: Richards, M. P. (ed.), The Integration of the Child into a Social World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D., and Wittig, B. A. Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In: Foss, B. M. (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behavior IV. Pp. 111–36. London: Methuen, 1969.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. W. Attachment behavior out of doors. In: Jones, N. Blurton (ed.), Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Arling, G. L., and Harlow, H. F.Effects of social deprivation on maternal behavior of rhesus monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 64:371–77. 1967.Google Scholar
Barrett, J. E.Schedules of electric shock presentation in the behavioral control of imprinted ducklings. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 18:305–21. 1972Google Scholar
Barrett, J. E., Hoffman, H. S., Stratton, J. W., and Newby, V.Aversive control of following in imprinted ducklings. Learning and Motivation. 2:202–13. 1971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G.The characteristics and context of imprinting. Biological Reviews. 41:177–220. 1966.Google Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G.Preferences for familiarity and novelty: A model for the simultaneous development of both. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 41:249–59. 1973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G.The nature of early learning. Science. 183:740–41. 1974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G.Psychology of knowing another side. New Scientist. 69:166–67. 1976.Google Scholar
Bell, R. Q., and Harper, L. V.Child Effects on Adults. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977.Google Scholar
Bermant, G.Intensity and rate of distress calling in chicks as a function of social contact. Animal Behaviour. 11:514–17. 1963.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J.Maternal Care and Mental Health. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1951.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J.The nature of the child's tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 39:350–73. 1958.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J.Separation anxiety. International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 41:89–113. 1960.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J.Attachment and Loss. vol. I. Attachment. New York: Basic Books, 1969.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J.Attachment and Loss. Vol. II. Separation: Anxiety and Anger. New York: Basic Books, 1973.Google Scholar
Cairns, R. B.Attachment behavior of mammals. Psychological Review. 73:409–26. 1966a.Google Scholar
Cairns, R. B.Development, maintenance, and extinction of social attachment behavior in sheep. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 62:298–306. 1966b.Google Scholar
Cairns, R. B. and Werboff, J.Behavior development in the dog: An interspecific analysis. Science. 158:1070–72. 1967.Google Scholar
Candland, D. K., and Mason, W. A.Infant monkey heartrate: Habituation and effects of social substitutes. Developmental Psychobiology. 1:254–56. 1968.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. J., and Campos, J. J.Father mother, and stranger as elicitors of attachment behaviors in infancy. Developmental Psychology. 10:146–54. 1974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collias, N. E., and Collias, E. C.Some mechanisms of family integration in ducks. Auk. 73:378–400. 1956.Google Scholar
Cox, F. N.', and Campbell, D.Young children in a new situation with and without their mothers. Child Development. 39:123–31. 1968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, K. C., Gurski, J. C., and Scott, J. P.Interaction of separation distress with fear in infant dogs. Developmental Psychobiology. 10:203–12. 1977.Google Scholar
Décarie, T. G.Intelligence and Affectivity in Early Childhood. New York: International Universities Press, 1965.Google Scholar
DeGhett, V. J., Stewart, J. M., and Scott, J. P.Habituation of distress vocalization response of puppies of different dog breeds in constant and varying environments. American Zoologist. 10:294. 1970.Google Scholar
Dollard, J., and Miller, N. E.Personality and Psychotherapy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950.Google Scholar
Einsiedel, A. A. Jr.The development and modification of object preferences in domestic white leghorn chicks. Developmental Psychobiology. 8:533–40. 1975.Google Scholar
Eiserer, L. A.Behavioral control by stimulus components of an imprinting object. Animal Learning and Behavior. 5:153–60. 1977.Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S., and Klein, S. H.Persistence of acquired behavioral control in the context of imprinting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 24:255–56. 1975.Google Scholar
Elliot, O., and King, J. A.Effect of early food deprivation upon later consummatory behavior in puppies. Psychological Reports. 6:391–400. 1960.Google Scholar
Elliot, O., and Scott, J. P.The development of emotional distress reactions to separation in puppies. Journal of Genetic Psychology. 99:3–22. 1961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, S. S., and Ingham, M. E.Attachment behavior: A validation study in two age groups. Child Development. 46:319–30. 1975.Google Scholar
Fischer, G. J.Arousal and impairment: Temperature effects on following during imprinting. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 73:412–20. 1970.Google Scholar
Fisher, A. E. The effects of differential early treatment on the social and exploratory behavior of puppies. Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1955.Google Scholar
Fleener, D. E., and Cairns, R. B.Attachment behaviors in human infants: Discriminative vocalization on maternal separation. Developmental Psychology. 2:215–23. 1970.Google Scholar
Fredericson, E.Perceptual homeostasis and distress vocalization in the puppy. Journal of Personality. 20:472–77. 1952.Google Scholar
Freud, A.The psychoanalytic study of infantile feeding disturbances. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 2:119–32. 1946.Google Scholar
Frodi, A. M., Lamb, M. E., Leavitt, L. A., and Donovan, W. L.Fathers' and mothers' responses to infant smiles and cries. Infant Behavior and Development. 1:187–98. 1978.Google Scholar
Gaioni, S. J., Hoffman, H. S., Klein, S., and DePaulo, P.Distress calling as a function of group size in newly hatched ducklings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes. 3:335–42. 1977.Google Scholar
Gewirtz, J. L. Attachment, dependence, and a distinction in terms of stimulus control. In: Gewirtz, J. L. (ed.), Attachment and Dependency. Washington, D. C.: Winston, 1972.Google Scholar
Gray, P. H.Theory and evidence of imprinting in human infants. The Journal of Psychology. 46:155–66. 1958.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Harlow, M. K. The affectional systems. In: Schrier, A.Harlow, H. F. and Stollnitz, F. (eds.), Behavior of Nonhuman Primates. vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Harlow, M. K. Psychopathology in monkeys. In: Kimmel, H. D. (ed.), Experimental Psychopathology. New York: Academic Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Harlow, M. K. The language of love. In: Alloway, T., Krames, L. and Pliner, P. (eds.), Communication and Affect. New York: Academic Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Harlow, M. K. and Suomi, S. J.From thought to therapy. American Scientist. 59:538–49. 1971.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Suomi, S. J.Induced depression in monkeys. Behavioral Biology. 12:273–96. 1974.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Suomi, S. J.The nature of love-simplified. American Psychologist. 25:161–68. 1970.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., and Zimmerman, R. R.Affectional responses in the infant monkey. Science. 130:421–32. 1959.Google Scholar
Heinicke, C., and Westheimer, L.Brief Separations. New York: International Universities Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Hess, E. H.Two conditions limiting critical age for imprinting. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 52:515–18. 1959.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, E. H.Imprinting. New York: Van Nostrand, 1973.Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A., and McGinnis, L.Some factors influencing the effects of temporary mother-infant separation: Some experiments with rhesus monkeys. Psychological Medicine. 7:197–212. 1977.Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S., and Boskoff, K. J.Control of aggressive behavior by an imprinted stimulus. Psychonomic Science. 29:305–6. 1972.Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S., and DePaulo, P.Behavioral control by an imprinting stimulus. American Scientist. 65:58–66. 1977.Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S., and Ratner, A. M.A reinforcement model of imprinting: Implications for socialization in monkeys and men. Psychological Review. 80:527–44. 1973.Google Scholar
Eiserer, L. A. and Grossman, D. J.Aggressive behavior in immature ducklings. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 86:569–80. 1974.Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S., and Solomon, R. L.An opponent-process theory of motivation: III. Some affective dynamics in imprinting. Learning and Motivation. 5:149–64. 1974.Google Scholar
Hogan, J. A., and Abel, E. L.Effects of social factors in response to unfamiliar environments in Gallus gallus spadiceus. Animal Behavior. 19:687–94. 1971.Google Scholar
Igel, G. J., and Calvin, A. D.The development of affectional responses in infant dogs. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 53:302–5. 1960.Google Scholar
Jackson, P. S., and Bateson, P. P. G.Imprinting and exploration of slight novelty in chicks. Nature. 251:609–10. 1974.Google Scholar
Jay, P. Mother-infant relations in langurs. In: Rheingold, H. L. (ed.), Maternal Behavior in Mammals. New York: Wiley, 1963.Google Scholar
Kaufman, I. C. Mother/infant relations in monkeys and humans: A reply to Professor Hinde. In: White, N. F. (ed.), Ethology and Psychiatry. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Kaufman, I. C. and Hinde, R. A.Factors influencing distress calling in chicks, with special reference to temperature changes and social isolation. Animal Behaviour. 9:197–204. 1961.Google Scholar
Kaufman, I. C., and Rosenblum, L. A.Depression in infant monkeys separated from their mothers. Science 155:1030–31. 1967a.Google Scholar
Kaufman, I. C., and Rosenblum, L. A.The reaction to separation in infant monkeys: Anaclitic depression and conservation - withdrawal. Psychosomatic Medicine. 29:648–75. 1967b.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotelchuck, M. The nature of the child's tie to his father. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1972.Google Scholar
Kotelchuck, M.The nature of the infant's tie to his father.Presented at the Society for Research on Child Development,Philadelphia, April 1973.Google Scholar
Kotelchuck, M. The infant's relationship to the father: Experimental evidence. In: Lamb, M. E. (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development. New York: Wiley, 1976.Google Scholar
Kovach, J. K.Critical period or optimal arousal? Early approach behavior as a function of stimulus, age, and breed variables in chicks. Developmental Psychology. 3:88–97. 1970.Google Scholar
Kovach, J. K. and Hess, E. H.Imprinting: Effects of painful stimulation on the following response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 56:461–64. 1963.Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. The role of the father: An overview. In: Lamb, M. E. (ed.), The Role of the Father in Child Development. New York: Wiley, 1976.Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. Social interaction in infancy and the development of personality. In: Lamb, M. E. (ed.), Social and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1978.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. and Rosenblum, L. A. (eds.), The Effect of the Infant on its Caregiver. New York: Wiley, 1974.Google Scholar
Ley, R. G., and Koepke, J. E.Sex and age differences in the departures of young children from their mothers.Presented to the Society for Research in Child Development,Denver, April 1975.Google Scholar
Littenberg, R., Tulkin, S., and Kagan, J.Cognitive components of separation anxiety. Developmental Psychology. 4:387–88. 1971.Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. Z.The companion in the bird's world. Auk. 54:245–73. 1937.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E., and Feldman, S. S. Mother-attachment and stranger-reactions in the third year of life. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 37. 1972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahler, M. S.On Human Symbiosis and the Vicissitudes of Individuation. Vol. I. Infantile Psychosis. New York: International Universities Press, 1968.Google Scholar
Marley, E., and Morse, W. H.Operant conditioning in the newly hatched chicken. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 9:95–103. 1966.Google Scholar
Martin, H. P. (ed.), The Abused Child: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Developmental Issues and Treatment. Boston: Ballinger, 1976.Google Scholar
Mason, W. A. Motivational factors in psychosocial development. In: Arnold, W. J. & Page, M. M. (eds.). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Mason, W. A. and Berkson, G.Effects of maternal mobility on the development of rocking and other behaviors in rhesus monkeys: A study with artificial mothers. Developmental Psychobiology. 8:197–211. 1975.Google Scholar
Mason, W. A., and Kenney, M. D.Redirection of filial attachments in rhesus monkeys: Dogs as mother surrogates. Science. 183:1209–11. 1974.Google Scholar
McKinney, W. T., and Bunney, W. E.Animal model of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry. 21:240–48. 1969.Google Scholar
Melvin, K. B., Cloar, F. T., and Massingill, L. S.Imprinting of Bobwhite quail to a hawk. Psychological Record. 17:235–38. 1967.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., and Pribram, K. H.Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1960.Google Scholar
Mineka, S., and Suomi, S. J. Social separation in monkeys, Psychological Bulletin, in press.Google Scholar
Moltz, H.Imprinting: An epigenetic approach. Psychological Review. 70:123–38. 1963.Google Scholar
Moltz, H. and Rosenblum, L. A.Imprinting and associative learning: The stability of the following response in Peking ducklings (Anas platyrynchous). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 51:580–83. 1958.Google Scholar
Morgan, G. A., and Ricciuti, H. N. Infants' responses to strangers during the first year. In: Foss, B. M. (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behavior IV. London: Methuen, 1969.Google Scholar
Passman, R. H.The effects of mothers and “security” blankets upon learning in children.Presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association,New Orleans, August 1974.Google Scholar
Passman, R. H.Arousal reducing properties of attachment objects: Testing the functional limits of the security blanket relative to the mother. Developmental Psychology. 12:468–69. 1976.Google Scholar
Passman, R. H.Providing attachment objects to facilitate learning and reduce distress: Effects of mothers and security blankets. Developmental Psychology. 13:25–28. 1977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passman, R. H. and Erck, T. W.Visual presentation of mothers for facilitating play in children: The effects of silent films of mothers.Presented to the Society for Research in Child Development,New Orleans, March 1977.Google Scholar
Passman, R. H., and Weisberg, P.Mothers and blankets as agents for promoting play and exploration by young children in a novel environment: The effects of social and nonsocial attachment objects. Developmental Psychology. 11:170–77. 1975.Google Scholar
Petijohn, T. F., Wong, T. W., Ebert, P. D., and Scott, J. P.Alleviation of separation distress in 3 breeds of young dogs. Developmental Psychobiology. 10:373–81. 1977.Google Scholar
Piaget, J.The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York: International Universities Press, 1952.Google Scholar
Piaget, J.The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York: Basic Books, 1954.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W.Imprinting in precocial birds: Interpretation, evidence and evaluation. Psychological Bulletin. 79:48–58. 1973.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W. Ethological elements in social psychology. In: Hendrick, C. (ed.), Perspectives on Social Psychology. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Eichenbaum, H., and Heilweil, M.Rates of distress vocalizations in naive domestic chicks as an index of approach tendency to an imprinting stimulus. Behavioral Biology. 9:595–603. 1973.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Lamb, M. E., and Suomi, S. J.Effects of multiple peer separation in domestic chicks. Developmental Psychology. 14:379–87. 1978b.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Nerenz, D. R., Diekroeger, T. L., Derrickson, K., and Fenne, J. T. Antecedants to social separation effects in domestic chicks, in preparation.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Nerenz, D. R., and Rein, B.Mediating factors in chick social pecking. I. Effects of isolation, imprinting, and peer contact. Aggressive Behavior. 4:141–51. 1978a.Google Scholar
Rajecki, D. W., Suomi, S. J., Scott, E. A., and Campbell, B.Effects of social isolation and social separation in domestic chicks. Developmental Psychology. 13:143–55. 1977.Google Scholar
Ratner, A. M.Modification of ducklings filial behavior by aversive stimulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes. 2:266–84. 1976.Google Scholar
Rheingold, H. L. Maternal behavior in the dog. In: Rheingold, H. L. (ed.), Maternal Behavior in Mammals. New York: Wiley, 1963.Google Scholar
Rheingold, H. L., and Eckerman, C. O.The infant separates himself from his mother. Science. 168:178–83. 1970.Google Scholar
Rheingold, H. L., and Eckerman, C. O. Fear of the stranger: A critical examination. In: Reese, H. W. (ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior VIII. New York: Academic, 1973.Google Scholar
Robertson, J., and Bowlby, J.Observations of the sequences of response of children aged 18 to 24 months during the course of separation. Courrier. 2:131–42. 1952.Google Scholar
Robertson, J., and Robertson, J.Young children in brief separation: A fresh look. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 26:264–315. 1971.Google Scholar
Rosenblum, L. A. Infant attachment in monkeys. In: Schaffer, H. R. (ed.), The Origins of Human Social Relations. New York: Academic Press, 1971aGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, L. A. The ontogeny of mother-infant relations in macaques. In: Moltz, H. (ed.), The Ontogeny of Vertebrate Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1971bGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, L. A. and Harlow, H. F.Approach-avoidance conflict in the mother-surrogate situation. Psychological Reports. 12:83–85. 1963.Google Scholar
Rosenblum, L. A., & Kaufman, I. C.Variations in infant development and response to maternal loss in monkeys. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 38:418–26. 1968.Google Scholar
Ross, G., Kagan, J., Zelazo, P., and Kotelchuck, M.Separation protest in infants in home arid laboratory. Developmental Psychology. 11:256–57. 1975.Google Scholar
Ross, S., Scott, J. P., Cherner, M., and Denenberg, V. H.Effects of restraint and isolation on yelping in puppies. Animal Behaviour. 8:1–5. 1960.Google Scholar
Sackett, G. P., Griffin, G. A., Pratt, C., Joslyn, W. D., and Ruppenthal, G.Mother-infant and adult female choice behavior in rhesus monkeys after various rearing experiences. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 63:376–81. 1967.Google Scholar
Sackett, G. P., Holm, R. A., and Ruppenthal, G. C.Social isolation rearing: Species differences in behavior of macaque monkeys. Developmental Psychology. 12:283–88. 1976.Google Scholar
Salzen, E. A.Imprinting in birds and primates. Behaviour. 28:232–54. 1967.Google Scholar
Salzen, E. A. Imprinting and environmental learning. In: Aronson, L. R., Tobach, E., Lehrman, D. S., and Rosenblatt, J. S. (eds.), Development and Evolution of Behavior. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1970.Google Scholar
Scarr, S., and Salapatek, P.Patterns of fear development during infancy. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 16:53–90. 1970.Google Scholar
Schaffer, H. R., and Callender, W. M.Psychological effects of hospitalization in infancy. Pediatrics. 24:528–39. 1959.Google Scholar
Schaffer, H. R., and Emerson, P. The development of social attachments in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 29. 1964.Google Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In: Jones, M. R. (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1959.Google Scholar
Schneirla, T. C. Aspects of stimulation and organization in approach/withdrawal processes underlying vertebrate behavioral development. In: Lehrman, D. S., Hinde, R. A., and Shaw, E. (eds.), Advances in the Study of Behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P. The process of primary socialization in canine and human infants. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 28. 1963.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P. Attachment and separation in dog and man: Theoretical propositions. In: Schaffer, H. R. (ed.), The Origins of Human Social Relations. New York: Academic Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P. and Bronson, F. H. Experimental exploration of the et-epimeletic or care-soliciting behavioral system. In: Leiderman, P. H. and Shapiro, D. (eds.), Psychobiological Approaches to Social Behavior. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P., and DeGhett, V. J. Development of affect in dogs and rodents. In Alloway, T., Krames, L., and Pliner, P. (eds.), Communication and Affect. New York: Academic Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P., and Marston, M. V.Critical periods affecting normal and maladjustive social behavior in puppies. Journal of Genetic Psychology. 77:25–60. 1950.Google Scholar
Scott, J. P., Stewart, J. M., and DeGhett, V. J. Separation in infant dogs. In: Senay, E. & Scott, J. P. (eds.), Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects. Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1973.Google Scholar
Seay, B., Alexander, B. K., and Harlow, H. F.Maternal behavior of socially deprived rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 69:345–54. 1964.Google Scholar
Solomon, R. L., and Corbit, J. D.An opponent-process theory of motivation: II. Cigarette addiction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 81:158–71. 1973.Google Scholar
Solomon, R. L., and Corbit, J. D.An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological Review. 81:119–45. 1974.Google Scholar
Spitz, R. A.Anaclitic depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 2:313–42. 1946.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Waters, E., and Matas, L. Contextual determinants of infant affective response. In: Lewis, M. and Rosenblum, L. (eds.), The Origins of Fear. New York: Wiley, 1974.Google Scholar
Stanley, W. C., and Elliot, O.Differential human handling as reinforcing events and as treatments influencing later social behavior in basenji puppies. Psychological Reports. 10:775–88. 1962.Google Scholar
Stayton, D. J., Ainsworth, M. D., and Main, M.Development of separation behavior in the first year of life: protest, following and greeting. Developmental Psychology. 9:213–25. 1973.Google Scholar
Stettner, L. J., and Tilds, B. N.Effect of the presence of an imprinted object on response of ducklings in an open field and when exposed to a fear stimulus. Psychonomic Science. 4:107–8. 1966.Google Scholar
Stewart, J. M., DeGhett, J. V., and Scott, J. P.Age of onset of puppies' distress vocalizations in strange and familiar situations. American Zoologist. 10:293. 1970.Google Scholar
Suomi, S. J., and Harlow, H. F.Effects of differential removal from group on social development of rhesus monkeys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 16:149–64. 1975.Google Scholar
Suomi, S. J., Harlow, H. F. and Domek, C. J.Effect of repetitive infant-infant separation of young monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 76:161–72. 1970.Google Scholar
Suomi, S. J., Mineka, S., and Delizio, R. Multiple peer separations in adolescent monkeys: An opponent-process interpretation, in preparation.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. R., and O'Kieffe, M. M.Imprinting: Its effects on the response to stress in chicks. Science. 135:918–19. 1962.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. R., and Rajecki, D. W.Effects of the presence of familiar objects on the tendency of domestic chicks to peck in a novel situation. Revue du Comportement Animal. 8:95–102. 1974.Google Scholar
Wolff, P. H. The natural history of crying and other vocalizations in early infancy. In: Foss, B. M. (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behavior IV, London: Methuen, 1969.Google Scholar
Yarrow, L. J. The development of focused relationships during infancy. In: Hellmuth, J. (ed.), Exceptional Infant I. Seattle, Wash.: Special Child Publications, 1967.Google Scholar