Since developments of the last century increasingly involved the political emergence of ethnic and national minorities within polyglot empires, the concern of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels with nationalities is not surprising. It was they, in fact, who claimed a “scientific” basis for advocating revolution and who asked the important question: “What is the relationship between nationalist aspirations and social revolution?”

The authors of the few works in English about the Marxist view of nationality tend to take a simplistic approach to this complex issue. Treating Marx's and Engels' ideas as though they were static has led to an interpretation portraying Marx and Engels as mere revolutionary nationalists. But although it avoids the complexities of a dynamic treatment of a problem in intellectual history, such an interpretation not only stumbles into oversimplification but it also, and almost unavoidably, misses one of the most novel interpretations of the European nationalities question in the mid-nineteenth century.

An accurate analysis of Marxist ideas on the nationality issue can be made only in the context of Marx's and Engels' materialist view of history and with reference to the actual political upheavals in which Marx and Engels themselves participated and which colored their perceptions. This combination of ideology and experience evolved, slowly, within the Marxist framework into a set of clear criteria on nationality.

After a long period of neglect, the Austrian Military Frontiers have once again aroused the interest of historians. This article is based on the assumption that, because of the new interest, the reader will be familiar with the frontiers' basic organizational features. Presumably it is well known that the inhabitants of the border area between the Austrian and Turkish empires were subject to military conscription and that because of their unique role their living conditions were better than those of the Hungarian serfs.

The period from the fall of Napoleon in 1815 to the March, 1848, Revolution brought to the Habsburg empire the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, with all its attendant social evils. Increasing poverty, vice, and crime presented a growing challenge to the Catholic clergy, traditionally the custodians of moral standards in the monarchy. In the larger cities, most notably in Vienna, priests and bishops could no longer ignore the social problems arising in the expanding industrial towns. This study seeks to explore the extent to which Austrian churchmen, particularly those in the archdiocese of Vienna, where the greatest industrial activity occurred, involved themselves in the problems of the increasing numbers of factory workers in the new towns surrounding the capital during the period before 1848.

Since its organization in 1830 the Mormon Church has been extremely active in proselytizing. Believing themselves representatives of a unique and chosen people—the bearers of the restored gospel of Jesus Christ—Mormon elders, encouraged both by the New Testament admonition “to teach all nations and baptize them” and by Joseph Smith's injunction that “the greatest and most important duty is to preach the Gospel,” have proselytized indiscriminately among Christians and non-Christians. Their missionary zeal eventually prompted them to attempt to make converts in the Habsburg monarchy, which, with the exception of Spain, was the most loyal pro-Catholic power in Europe. In Austria, where the movement was usually branded either as an emigration scheme or as a contrivance to recruit women for “Mormon harems,” the elders were confronted with an apathetic public and a hostile government that denied them permission to preach. Harassed, imprisoned, and expelled, they faced one discouragement after another. No amount of discouragement and persecution, however, daunted the Mormons for long. Constant difficulties came to be expected and considered normal.

In 1835 the Sardinian Minister in Vienna, Count Vittorio Amadeo Bertone di Sambuy, wrote that Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol-Schauenstein, then Austrian envoy to Baden, was a man of whom there had been “great expectations,” which somehow had never been realized. Sambuy spoke too soon, of course, since Buol subsequently occupied some of the most sensitive and prestigious posts in the Austrian service, including those at Turin, St. Petersburg, and London, and ended his long career serving as Austrian foreign minister from 1852 to 1859. But many historians, taking the lead from a few of his contemporaries, have continued to write that Buol did not live up to expectations of one who belonged to the Metternichian school of diplomacy. Austrian historians in particular have been hard on him, universally judging him as quite unfit for the office of foreign minister. Heinrich von Srbik, probably the most widely respected modern interpreter of the Metternich tradition, referred to Buol as a “weak copy of the original Schwarzenberg.” Srbik, Heinrich Friedjung, Richard Charmatz, and others blamed him for the decline of Austria's prestige in Europe after the death of Prince Felix Schwarzenberg and for the difficulties Austria faced in Germany, the Near East, and Italy during the course of his ministry. In their view, Metternich and Schwarzenberg had always secured for Austria the alliances necessary for her to maintain her power and influence in Europe. Buol, on the other hand, squandered the legacy of Austrian prestige and good relations with foreign powers left to him by Schwarzenberg through high-handedness and incompetence.”

It is customary among western scholars who have written about the Carpatho-Rusyns to consider them “the most forgotten among the forgotten.” Little is known in the West about the political, economic, and cultural developments of Subcarpathian Rus', especially before 1918. Yet such an enormous amount of material has been written in eastern European languages about this territory that as early as 1931 the noted Slavic linguist Roman Jakobson could write: “In the whole east Slavic world, there is hardly any other marginal area whose past has been examined with such affectionate meticulousness and scholarliness as Carpatho-Russia.”

The present study is intended as an introductory guide to the voluminous historiography of Subcarpathian Rus'. The material has been arranged according to the following topical and chronological subdivisions: bibliographical aids; general historical studies; early history to 1514; 1514 to 1711; 1711 to 1848; 1848 to 1918; 1918 to 1938; October, 1938, to March, 1939; 1939 to 1944; 1945 to the present; cultural developments; Rusyns in Hungary; Rusyns in Jugoslavia; and Rusyns in the United States. Works will be discussed under the heading which most nearly describes the period dealt with in the text regardless of the date of publication. The time periods were not designated arbitrarily but are based on certain historical events the significance of which will be clarified in the appropriate subsection. Most studies treated in this article deal exclusively or primarily with Subcarpathian Rus' only a few are concerned with problems of a more general nature. Many studies dealing with the recent history of the area are not necessarily included because they represent sound historical research but because they are valuable, highly selective accounts of crucial events, many of them written by the participants themselves.

This compilation was conceived as a means of encouraging research in Hungarian history. It is limited to dissertations completed for academic degrees in Austria, Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Unless otherwise noted, all entries refer to Ph. D. dissertations. In preparing the European entries, no attempt was made to distinguish between the degrees of Doctorat de Spécialité, Doctorat d'État, and Doctorat de l'Université, on the one hand, or Dissertationen and Habilitationsschriften, on the other. The chronological limits of the compilation extend from 1920 to 1972.

The following recently published French studies might be of interest to students of Austrian history:

Brook-Shepherd, Gordon, Le dernier Habsbourg. Paris: Flammarion,1971. Pp. 402. A French translation of the German edition.