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² On this shift in political culture, see Eley, Geoff, “Remapping the Nation: War, Revolutionary Upheaval and State Formation in Eastern Europe, 1914–1923,” in Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective, ed. Potichnyj, Peter J. and Aster, Howard (Edmonton, 1988), 205–46Google Scholar; and Rechter, David, “Neither East nor West: Viennese Jewish Politics in World War One” (Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1995).Google Scholar On ethnopolitics, see Rothschild, Joseph, Ethno-politics: A Conceptual Framework (New York, 1981)Google Scholar; and Connor, Walker, Ethnonationatism (Princeton, 1994).Google Scholar On Habsburg Jewry during the war, see also Rozenblit, Marsha L., “The Dilemma of Identity: The Impact of the First World War on Habsburg Jewry,” in The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective, ed. Robertson, Ritchie and Timms, Edward, Austrian Studies, vol. 5 (Edinburgh, 1994), 144–57.Google Scholar

³ On the progress of the war in Galicia and Russian Poland from August 1914 to early 1915, see Stone, Norman, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (New York, 1975)Google Scholar, chaps. 4–5. On the Russian military's policies toward the Jews, see Duker, Abraham G., “Jews in the World War,” Contemporary Jewish Record 2 (09–10 1939): 13–14Google Scholar; and Graf, Daniel W., “Military Rule behind the Russian Front, 1914–1917: The Political Ramifications,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 22 (1974): 398–400.Google Scholar

⁴ Precise statistics were not compiled. An Austrian Interior Ministry report from late 1915 estimated a peak of approximately 600,000 “destitute” refugees, a figure excluding both those in Hungary and those not registered as refugees with the Austrian government; see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge im Kriege 1914/15 (Vienna, 1915), 46–47.Google Scholar See also Kreppel, Jonas, Juden und Judentum von Heute (Vienna, 1925), 66–67Google Scholar; and Tartakower, Arieh, “Jewish Migratory Movements in Austria in Recent Generations,” in The Jews of Austria, ed. Fraenkel, Josef (London, 1967), 289–90.Google Scholar On the flight westward, see Hilsenrad, Helen, Brown Was the Danube (New York, 1966), 76–80Google Scholar; Henisch, Meir, Mi-bayit u-mi-huts (Tel Aviv, 1961), 142–44Google Scholar; and Lachs, Minni, Warum schaust du zurück? Erinnerungen 1907–1941 (Vienna, 1986), 34–45.Google Scholar

⁵ An unpublished Israelitische Kultusgemeinde draft report of September 1919 gives 186, 848 Jews in Vienna in 1914; see Central Archives for the History of the Jewish People, Jerusalem (hereafter CAHJP), Archiv Wien (hereafter AW), 102. On Galician Jews in the city, see Rozenblit, Marsha L., “A Note on Galician Jewish Migration to Vienna,” Austrian History Yearbook 19–20 (1983–1984): 143–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hödl, Klaus, Als Bettler in die Leopoldstadt (Vienna, 1994).Google Scholar

⁶ For estimates, see Bloch's Wochenschrift, 09 18, 1914, 649Google Scholar; Nov. 6, 1914, 765; Nov. 27, 1914, 823. See also Hoffmann-Holter, Beatrix, “Abreisendmachung”. Jüdische Kriegsflüchtlinge in Wien 1914 bis 1923 (Vienna, 1995), 35–38.Google Scholar For the government's figures, see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 6, 29.Google Scholar By the end of June 1915, the Austrians had succeeded in recapturing all of western Galicia and most of eastern Galicia; see Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 2 (Vienna, 1931), 315–504Google Scholar; and Stone, , Eastern Front, 136ff.Google Scholar

⁷ On the administrative distribution of labor, see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 5.Google Scholar The quotation is from ibid., 9. For further examples, see Monatschrift der Österreichisch-Israelitisch Union (hereafter Monatschrift der Union) 27 (05–06 1915): 4Google Scholar; Bloch's Wochenschrift, 04 23, 1915, 317–18Google Scholar; Neue Freie Presse, 12 15, 1915 (a.m.), 13Google Scholar; and Redlich, Joseph, Austrian War Government (New Haven, 1929), chap. 4.Google Scholar

⁸ See von Wiser, Friedrich, Staatliche Kulturarbeit für Flüchtlinge (Vienna, 1916)Google Scholar; Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 16, 20, 22Google Scholar; and Bloch's Wochenschrift, 09 30, 1916, 436–37.Google Scholar Courses as varied as embroidery, shoemaking, horticulture, plumbing, and poultry farming were available for the refugees.

⁹ See Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 6.Google Scholar On Schwarz-Hiller, see Jäger-Sunstenau, Hanns, “Der Wiener Gemeirtderat Rudolf Schwarz-Miller. Kämpfer für Humanität und Recht,” Zeitschrift für die Geschichte der Juden 10 (1973): 9–16.Google Scholar

¹⁰ See Zentralstelle der Fürsorge für Flüchtlinge (Vienna, 1917)Google Scholar; Die Gemeinde-Verwaltung der Stadt Wien vom 1. Jänner 1914 bis 30. Juni 1919 (Vienna, 1923), 167–68Google Scholar; and Bloch's Wochenschrift, 11 6, 1914, 765Google Scholar; Jan. 1, 1916, 17–19. For the less numerous refugees from the professional and middle classes, two smaller committees were created with government backing in late September. The Wiener Hilfskomitee, headed by the Galician politician and academic Leon von Bilinski, handled some 20 percent of the refugees, while the Ukrainische Hilfskomitee supported approximately 1,500 refugees; see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 6Google Scholar; and Reichspost, 09 29, 1915 (a.m.), 8–9.Google Scholar

¹¹ See Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 7–8Google Scholar; and Monatschrift der Union 27 (05–06 1915): 2–3.Google Scholar

¹² The Viennese Allianz was formed in 1873 in emulation of the French Alliance Israélite Universelle; see Wistrich, Robert S., The Jews of Vienna in the Age of Franz Joseph (Oxford, 1989), 71–75Google Scholar; and Gelber, N. M., “Die Wiener Israelitische Allianz,” Bulletin des Leo Baeck Instituts 3 (1960): 190–203.Google Scholar On the Allianz attitude to welfare and its role in provisioning the camps, see Bericht der Israelitischen Allianz zu Wien (hereafter BIAW), 1914, no. 42: 7–9; 1915Google Scholar, no. 43: 8. The refugee welfare bodies created by the government were nominally nonconfessional; see, for example, Bloch's Wochenschrift, 04 20, 1917, 238.Google Scholar On the government's appeal to private welfare groups, see Redlich, , Austrian War Government, 104–6.Google Scholar

¹³ See, for example, Protokolle der Plenar-Sitzung, Dec. 30, 1914, CAHJP, AW, 71/15; Bloch's Wochenschrift, 09 4, 1914, 609–10Google Scholar; and Zweimonats-Bericht für die Mitglieder der österreichischisraelitischen Humanitätsvereine “B'nai B'rith” (hereafter ZBB) 17 (1914): 183.Google Scholar

¹⁴ The categorization of Jews as a nationality did not go unnoticed; see Jüdische Zeitung, 08 10, 1917, 3.Google Scholar For the government's employment of national categories in its statistics, see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 29ffGoogle Scholar; and Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv, Ministerium des Innern (hereafter AVA/MdI), no. 59736/15, 19, and no. 56166/16, 19. On the sometimes ambiguous status of the Jews in the Habsburg empire, see Stourzh, Gerald, “Galten die Juden als Nationalität Altösterreichs?” Studia Judaica Austriaca 10 (1984): 73–98.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See Die Tätigkeit der Wiener Gemeindeverwaltung in der Obmänner-Konferenz während des Weltkrieges (Vienna, 1917), 12, 16Google Scholar; Neue National-Zeitung, 10 16, 1914, 1Google Scholar; and Hoffmann-Holler, , “Abreisendmachung”, 39–40.Google Scholar On the Gemeinderat during the war, see Boyer, John W., Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in Power, 1897–1918 (Chicago, 1995), 374–76.Google Scholar

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¹⁸ Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 10–13Google Scholar; BIAW, 1914, 15Google Scholar; 1915, 9; 1916, no. 44:12–15; 1917, no. 45: 10. From a peak of over 12,000 in April 1915, Jewish numbers in the camps fell to under 6,000 by June 1917. Of a total camp population of 73,000 in October 1915, some 10,500 were Jewish; see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 30, 44, 46Google Scholar; and BMW, 1914, 17–19; 1917, 12.

¹⁹ Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 24, 29.Google Scholar See also Hoffmann-Holter, , “Abreisendmachung,” 52–60.Google Scholar

²⁰ See Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 29ff.Google Scholar As government statistics were estimates, numbers are rounded to the nearest five hundred. In Bohemia, 57,000 Jews constituted 60 percent of 97,000 refugees, while in Moravia 18,500 Jewish refugees made up 30 percent of the 57,500 total.

²¹ BIAW, 1916, 10, 16.Google Scholar The new refugees were described in the Allianz report as “mostly without means and unfit for work.” By the end of July, the Russians occupied nearly all of Bukovina and had made significant advances in eastern Galicia; see Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, vol. 4 (Vienna, 1933), 359–664Google Scholar; and Stone, , Eastern Front, chap. 11.Google Scholar

²² Tätigkeit der Gemeindeverwaltung, 68Google Scholar; Hoffmann-Holter, , “Abreisendmachung,” 60–71Google Scholar; and BIAW, 1916, 15.Google Scholar In July 1917 the Interior Ministry was supporting 423,500 refugees in the Austrian half of the empire; 177,000 (just over 40 percent) were Jewish, of whom some 41,000 were in Vienna; see AVA/MdI, no. 46578/17, 19; and BMW, 1917, 11–12. There were also 89,000 Ruthenians, 82,000 Italians, 37,500 Poles, 20,000 Slovenes, 9,000 Croats, and 7,000 ethnic Germans.

²³ See Löwenheim, Avigdor, “Hanhagat ha-kehila ha-yehudit ha-neologit shel pest ba-shanim 1914–1919: maamada ve-peiluta ba-tsibur ha-yehudi” (Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1991), 137–47Google Scholar; Rechter, , “Neither East nor West,” 301–2Google Scholar; and BIAW, 1914, 19–20; 1916, 10–12, 15.Google Scholar

²⁴ Rosenbaum, Heinrich, “Die Prager Flüchtlingsfürsorge,” in Das Jüdische Prag. Eine Sammelschrift (Prague, 1917; Kronberg/Ts, 1978), 55–56Google Scholar; Rechter, , “Neither East nor West,” 303Google Scholar; and ZBB 18 (1915): 64. See also Kudela, Jiri, “Die Emigration galizischer und osteuropäischer Juden nach Böhmen und Prag zwischen 1914–1916/17,” Studia Rosenthaliana 23 (supplement 1989): 119–34.Google Scholar

²⁵ See BIAW, 1917, 6Google Scholar; and ZBB 20 (1917): 163.Google Scholar On conditions in Galicia, see An-ski, Sh., Der yidisher khurbm fun poyln, galitsie, un bukovina, in his Gezamlte shriftn, vols. 4–6 (New York, 1922–1924).Google Scholar

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²⁷ For various estimates of the number of refugees in Vienna in the immediate postwar period, see Rechter, , “Neither East nor West,” 107–8.Google Scholar

²⁸ See Aschheim, Steven E., Brothers and Strangers: The East European Jews in German and German Jewish Consciousness, 1800–1923 (Madison, 1982).Google Scholar On the Allianz attitude to Galician Jews, see Wistrich, , Jews of Vienna, 74–83.Google Scholar For B'nai B'rith, see ZBB 18 (1915): 117–24Google Scholar; and ZBB 19 (1916): 102–4.Google Scholar On B'nai B'rith in Vienna, see Klein, Denis B., Jewish Origins of the Psychoanalytic Movement (New York, 1981), 75–84.Google Scholar

²⁹ Zionist welfare work in Congress Poland during the war similarly contributed to “the transformation of Zionism into a movement of great popular appeal”; see Mendelsohn, Ezra, Zionism in Poland: The Formative Years, 1915–1926 (New Haven, 1981), 46.Google Scholar On the political effects of relief work in the war years, see also Zipperstein, Steven J., “The Politics of Relief: The Transformation of Russian Jewish Communal Life during the First World War,” in Studies in Contemporary Jewry, vol. 4, ed. Frankel, Jonathan (New York, 1988), 22–40.Google Scholar

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³¹ On the services offered, see Jüdische Zeitung, 02 19, 1915, 1–2Google Scholar; Apr. 14, 1916, 7–9; Neue National-Zeitung, 09 22, 1915, 148–49Google Scholar; and BIAW, 1914, 7–20.Google Scholar On Müller, see Margulies-Auerbach, Nanny, “Anitta Müller,” Neue Jüdische Monatshefte 4 (1919–1920): 203–8Google Scholar; and Müller, Anitta, “Mein Beistand für die Flüchtlinge,” Hickls Wienerjüdische Volkskalender 14 (1916–1917): 70–75.Google Scholar

³² The Komitee zur Aufklärung über ostjüdische Fragen was formed for this purpose; see Bloch's Wochenschrift, 10 29, 1915, 805–6Google Scholar; Jan. 26, 1917, 57; and Henisch, , Mi-bayit u-mi-huts 156–57, 260.Google Scholar The bulk of the committee's activity was undertaken by Galicians.

³³ “Tätigkeitsbericht der ‘Agudas Jisroel’ für die Zeit vom September 1914 bis Oktober 1917,” Beilage, , Jüdische Korrespondenz, 01 24, 1918Google Scholar; Jüdische Korrespondenz, 12 21, 1916, 2.Google Scholar

³⁴ See, for example, Jüdische Zeitung, 12 25, 1914, 1Google Scholar; Block's Wochenschrift, 09 18, 1914, 644Google Scholar; Mär. 5, 1915, 174–75; Mär. 12, 1915, 196–97; Nov. 30, 1917, 149–50; Jüdische Korrespondenz, 08 19, 1915, 2–3Google Scholar; Neue National-Zeitung, 09 18, 1914, 6Google Scholar; Oct. 2, 1914, 6; and Polizeidirektion Wien, Stimmungsberichte 1914/15 (hereafter PDW/SB), Feb. 25, 1915.

³⁵ For B'nai B'rith, see ZBB 18 (1915): 119Google Scholar; and ZBB 19 (1916): 103.Google Scholar See also Monatschrift der Union 28 (01–03 1916): 1–2Google Scholar; and ibid. (Apr-May 1916): 12–13. For a more sympathetic, Zionist view, see Abeles, Otto, Jüdische Flüchtlinge (Vienna, 1918)Google Scholar; and Birnbaum, Nathan, “Wir und die Flüchtlinge,” Jüdischer Nationalkalender 1 (1915–1916): 101–8.Google Scholar On Budapest, see Löwenheim, , “Hanhagat ha-kehila,” 137, 142–45Google Scholar; and Bloch, Joseph Samuel, Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben, vol. 3 (Vienna, 1933), 244–49.Google Scholar On Prague, see Kieval, Hillel J., The Making of Czech Jewry: National Conflict and Jewish Society in Bohemia, 1870–1918 (New York, 1988), 174–78Google Scholar; and Wiesenfeld, Moses, “Begegnung mit Ostjuden,” in Dichter, Denker, Helfer. Max Brod zum 50. Geburtstag, ed. Weltsch, Felix (Mährisch-Osrrau, 1934), 54–57.Google Scholar

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³⁷ American Jewish Relief Committee to Allianz, 01 21, 1915Google Scholar, Joint Distribution Committee Archives, New York (hereafter JDCA), Austria, File 19; Bogen, Boris D., “Activities of the Joint Distribution Committee in Austria,” unpublished manuscript in JDCA, Austria, General, 04 1920–21, 8.Google Scholar

³⁸ Maximilian Paul Schiff, the JDC representative in Vienna, complained to Judah Magnes that the Zionists “never lose sight of their political aspirations”; see Schiff to Magnes, Apr. 15, 1916, JDCA, Austria, File 19. On the distribution of American Jewish relief funds, see Szajkowski, Zosa, “Jewish Relief in Eastern Europe, 1914–1917,” Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 10 (1965): 24–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar On Zionist resentment at being denied access to these funds, see Herrmann, Leo to Motzkin, Leo, 01 21, 1915Google Scholar, CZA, L6/598; and Jüdische Zeitung, 09 28, 1917, 4.Google Scholar The Zionists' medical clinic, legal rights office, and welcome service at railway stations all received government praise and support; see Jüdische Zeitung, 04 14, 1916, 7–9; and AVA/MdI, no. 31922/16, 19.Google Scholar

³⁹ Jüdischer Nationalrat report of Dec. 13, 1918, JDCA, JDC Representative Committee Overseas, Austria, File 19. The most active Jewish welfare organization at this stage was the Zionist-oriented Soziale Hilfsgemeinschaft Anitta Müller, the successor to the relief network set up by Müller in 1914; see “Zehn Jahre Arbeit des Vereines Soziale Hilfsgemeinschaft Anitta Müller,” in CAHJP, AW, 2317; and Dritter Tätigkeits- und Rechenschaftsbericht der Wohlfahrtsinstitutionen der Frau Anitta Müller für Flüchtlinge aus Galizien und der Bukowina (Vienna, 1918), 10–19.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ On the background to these political developments, see Frankel, Jonathan, “The Paradoxical Politics of Marginality: Thoughts on the Jewish Situation during the Years 1914–21,” in Studies in Contemporary Jewry, vol. 4, ed. Frankel, 3–21Google Scholar; and Vital, David, Zionism: The Crucial Phase (Oxford, 1987), 89–92, 169–70, 190–91.Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ See PDW/SB 1914/15, Nov. 5 and 12, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 7, Mar. 18, Apr. 8, May 13, 1915; and Hoffmann-Holter, , “Abreisendmachung,” chap. 6.Google Scholar Government pronouncements stressed the compassion of the local population toward the new arrivals; see Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 4, 9–10Google Scholar; and Wiser, , Staatliche Kulturarbeit, 1.Google Scholar Aware of the mounting frictions, however, the authorities were at pains to encourage increased tolerance; see, for example, the text of the Interior Ministry's decree of April 1915, in Monatschrift der Union 27 (05–06 1915): 2–5Google Scholar; Hoffmann-Holter, , “Abreisendmachung,” 41–43Google Scholar; and Staatliche Flüchtlingsfürsorge, 3.Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ On Viennese anti-Semitism during the war, see Pauley, Bruce F., From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill, 1992), chap. 5Google Scholar; and Boyer, , Culture and Crisis, 432–37.Google Scholar More generally, see Wistrich, , Jews of Vienna, 205–37.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ Moser, Jonny, “Die Katastrophe der Juden in Österreich 1938–1945—ihre Voraussetzungen und ihre Überwindung,” Studia Judaica Austriaca 5 (1977): 70–71Google Scholar; Jüdische Zeitung, 11 23, 1917, 1–2Google Scholar; Dec. 14, 1917, 3; Bloch's Wochenschrift, 05 10, 1918, 278–79; July 19, 1918, 441–42.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See Block's Wochenschrift, 05 3, 1918, 261–62, 278–79Google Scholar; Aug. 2,1918, 473–74. For Schwarz-Hiller's comments, see ibid., Aug. 16, 1918, 505–6. On the Volkstag, see ibid., June 21, 1918, 375–76; Jüdische Zeitung, 06 21, 1918, 1Google Scholar; and Boyer, , Culture and Crisis, 416.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See Jüdische Zeitung, 08 2, 1918, 1–2Google Scholar, for the text of the protest. It was received ambivalently by the Zionists, who acknowledged it as a significant first step but criticized it as outmoded and inadequate in its moderation; see ibid., Aug. 2, 1918, 1; Aug. 9, 1918, 1. A Jewish self-defense force was in fact formed by the Zionists in early November 1918; see Rechter, , “Neither East nor West,” 271–76.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ See, for example, Bloch's Wochenschrift, 10 19, 1917, 653–54Google Scholar; Dec. 7, 1917, 764–65; May 3, 1918, 278–79. The July 1918 Kultusgemeinde resolution is further evidence of this readiness.

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