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Bullfights in Budapest: City Marketing, Moral Panics, and Nationalism in Turn-of-the-Century Hungary

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 April 2010

Alexander Vari
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At the beginning of June 1904, the Hungarian capital was in a state of frenzy. The bullfights, starring Pouly fils—a toreador from Nîmes, France—as the matador, and scheduled to take place in a recently built 15,000-seat bullring in the Budapest City Park, attracted everyone's attention. Reporting a wave of “Spanish fever” spreading among inhabitants of the city, the newspapers highlighted the fact that a large percentage of the population was talking about “toreadors, picadors, matadors, and bulls.” The toreadors dressed in their “exotic costumes” caused a stir everywhere they went (Figure 1). As the toreadors visited Budapest's tourist attractions many female passersby noticed their “suntanned faces and muscular bodies.” The matador's collar ornament, consisting of two studs representing two “miniature diamond bulls,” was a subject of conversation on everyone's lips. Local tailors proposed “Spanish collars” replicating those worn by Pouly as the ne plus ultra of fashion to their customers. Furniture makers and carpenters witnessed their sales of Spanish dressing-screens skyrocket. Surfing the wave of public interest, the Uránia, a local association for the popularization of science, scheduled slide shows about Spain. The Budapest Orpheum hired Tortajada, a well known Spanish female dancer, for several appearances on its stage. Parodic plays, mimicking a bullfight, were staged throughout June both on the site of Ős Budavára (Ancient Buda Castle), a historical theme park that opened in the City Park in 1896, and on an improvised outdoor stage on the Margaret Island. Theaters also claimed their share by scheduling operas such as Carmen, the Marriage of Figaro, and the Barber of Seville. Restaurants offered a new cocktail drink called “Krampumpouly.” Journalists turned into impromtu poets and wrote poems dedicated to the bulls. Even politicians joined in the popular enthusiasm for the bullfights, declaring in the Budapest parliament, as a journalist sarcastically remarked, that for the local political body from that moment on: “Vox popouly” is “vox dei.”

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Articles
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Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 41 , April 2010 , pp. 143 - 169
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Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 2010

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References

1 Reports in contemporary newspapers offer a somewhat conflicting picture; although an article in the Pesti Napló reported about 15,000 seats, Pesti Napló, 8 June 1904, 11, another in the Budapesti Hírlap, 11 June 1904, 11–12, estimated the arena's capacity to 12,000 seats.

2 “Mende-monda: A bika” [Rumours: the bull], Magyar Hírlap, 12 June 1904, 8.

3 “A bikaviadalok” [The bullfights], Budapesti Napló, 8 June 1904, 7.

4 See “A bikaviadalok” [The bullfights], Magyar Hírlap, 5 June 1904, 11.

5 “A toreador” [The toreador], Pesti Napló, 9 June 1904, 10.

6 Rosta, , “Spanyol láz” [Spanish fever], Egyetértés, 16 June 1904, 4Google Scholar.

7 “A színházak hírei: Az Uránia színház (Pekár Gyula Spanyolország című darabja)” [Theater news: The Uránia Theater (The play “Spain” by Gyula Pekár)], Budapesti Hírlap, 14 June 1904, 11.

8 “Fővárosi Orfeum” [Capital City Orpheum], Egyetértés, 16 June 1904, 5.

9 See “Ős-Budavára” [Ancient Buda Castle], Magyar Hírlap, 4 June 1904, 12; “Új program Ős-Budavárában” [New program in Ancient Buda Castle], Budapesti Hírlap, 16 June 1904, 11; “Bikaviadal Ős-Budavárában” [Bullfights in Ancient Buda Castle], Pesti Napló, 22 June 1904, 13; “Bikaviadal a Margitszigeten” [Bullfights on Margaret Island], Magyar Hírlap, 3 June 1904, 5; and Budapest, 3 June 1904, 5.

10 Rosta, “Spanyol láz.”

11 See “Dal a bikákról” [Song about the bulls], Budapesti Napló, 11 June 1904, 6–7.

12 Rosta, “Spanyol láz.”

13 For the role of bullfighting in the construction of Spanish national identity, see Schubert, Adrian, Death and Money in the Afternoon: A History of the Spanish Bullfight (New York, 1999)Google Scholar and Douglass, Carrie B., Bulls, Bullfighting, and Spanish Identities (Tucson, 1997)Google Scholar.

14 Maderthaner, Wolfgang and Musner, Lutz, Unruly Masses: The Other Side of Fin-de-siècle Vienna (New York, 2008), 90Google Scholar.

15 For more on the connection between the new media and the rise of an early mass culture in Europe and America, see Schwartz, Vanessa, Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin-de-Siècle Paris (Berkeley, 1998)Google Scholar; de la Motte, Dean and Przyblyski, Jeannenne, eds., Making the News: Modernity and the Mass Press in Nineteenth-Century France (Amherst, 1999)Google Scholar; Abel, Richard, The Ciné Goes to Town: French Cinema, 1896–1914 (Berkeley, 1998)Google Scholar; May, Larry, Screening Out the Past: The Birth of Mass Culture and the Motion Industry (Chicago, 1983)Google Scholar; Rydell, Robert W. and Kroes, Rob, Buffalo Bill in Bologna: The Americanization of the World, 1869–1922 (Chicago, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Before bullfights came to Budapest, they were also organized in Paris and Brussels. For a recent analysis of the transition from aristocratic to mass sports in Western Europe, which also pays attention to bullfights, see Cropper, Corry, Playing at Monarchy: Sports as Metaphor in Nineteenth-Century France (Lincoln, NE, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 The extent to which the Budapest corrida turned into something that almost required exorcism to appease nationalists is shown by the use to which the bullfights arena was put in later years. According to József Klaudy, the arena served between 1904 and 1907 as a stage for Magyar choral competitions; see his “Az európai legelső utazási iroda története. A MÁV hivatalos menetjegyirodájának története” [The history of Europe's first travel agency: The Hungarian State Railways Ticket Agency] in A Magyar Idegenforgalom Évkönyve (Budapest, 1943), 199–318, esp. 236. With this one exception, official references to the bullfights were expunged from histories of Budapest urban tourism published during the Horthy period. They were also anathematized by Márkus László, the choreographer of the interwar Saint Stephen's Day celebrations, who in a private diary that he kept in 1945 referred to the 1904 bullfights as an event that—horribile dictum—tainted the Magyar soul. See his A Duna királynője [The queen of the Danube], Manuscripts Division, Fol. Hung 2636, Széchenyi National Library, Budapest.

18 See the book and articles by Károly, Vörös: Egy világváros születése [The birth of a world city] (Budapest, 1973)Google Scholar; “A fővárostól a székesfővárosig 1873–1896” [From capital city to residential city, 1873–1896] in Budapest története [The history of Budapest], vol. 4 (Budapest, 1978), 321–524; “Birth of Budapest. Building a Metropolis, 1873–1918” in Gerő, András and Poór, János, eds., Budapest: A History from Its Beginnings to 1998 (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; and “A világváros utján: 1873–1918” [On the road toward world city, 1873–1918], Budapesti Negyed 20–21 (1998), 106–72. See also Lukacs, John, Budapest 1900: A Historical Portrait of a City and Its Culture, (New York, 1988)Google Scholar and Horel, Catherine, Histoire de Budapest, (Paris, 1998)Google Scholar.

19 For other works that support this interpretation, see Miklós, Szabó, Az újkonzervativizmus és a jobboldali radikalizmus története, 1867–1918 [The history of new conservatism and right-wing radicalism, 1867–1918] (Budapest, 2003)Google Scholar; Péter, Bihari, Lövészárkok a hátországban: középosztály, zsidókérdés, antiszemitizmus az első világháború Magyarországán, [Trenches on the domestic front: The middle class, the Jewish question, and anti-Semitism in Hungary during World War I](Budapest, 2008)Google Scholar; and Gábor, Gyáni, Budapest –túl jón és rosszon: a nagyvárosi múlt mint tapasztalat [Budapest beyond good and evil: The metropolitan past as experience] (Budapest, 2008), esp. 67–68Google Scholar.

20 See the chapters on “The Millennium Monument” in Gerő, András, Modern Hungarian Society in the Making: The Unfinished Experience (Budapest, 1995), 202–22Google Scholar; and “The Anniversaries of the Historicized Nation: Two Millennia in Hungary” in idem, Imagined History: Chapters from Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Hungarian Symbolic Politics (New York, 2005), 153–70.

21 Gyula, Laurencic, ed., A Milleniumi kiállítás csodái. Ős-Budavár és Konstantinápoly Budapesten. Die Wunder der Milleniums-Austellung. Ős-Budavár u. Konstantinopel in Budapest (Budapest, 1896)Google Scholar.

22 Péter, Buza, Egy város játékai. Budapest a millenium szinpadán [Urban metamorphoses: Budapest on the millennial stage] (Budapest, 1996), 55Google Scholar.

23 See Henrik, Lenkei (ed.) A mulató Budapest [Budapest entertains itself] (Budapest, 1896)Google Scholar. See also the French (Budapest qui s'amuse) and the German (Das vernügte Budapest) editions of this book published the same year by the Singer and Wolfner Publishing House.

24 See the statistical tables of Budapest urban tourism for the 1885–1896 period in Matlekovics, Sándor, Magyarország közgazdasága és közművelődési állapota ezeréves fennállásakor és az 1896. évi ezredéves kiállítás [The status of Hungary's economy and public culture one thousand years after its founding and the Millennial Exhibition of 1896] (Budapest, 1898)Google Scholar.

25 See “The Millennial Celebration at Budapest,” in Davis, Richard Harding, A Year from a Correspondent's Notebook (New York, 1898), 70Google Scholar.

26 See “Markos Béla a főváros idegenforgalmáról (1936 november)” [Markos Béla on tourism in the capital (November 1936)] in “A nagy válságtól” a “rendszerváltásig”: Szöveggyűjtemény Budapest történetének tanulmányozásához [From the “Great Crisis” to the “Regime Change.” Reader for the study of Budapest history], ed. Sípos András and Donáth Péter (Budapest, 2000), 179–82.

27 Géza, Almády and János, Halmos, Budapest idegenforgalmának emelése érdekében tett intézkedések ismertetése. Kapcsolatban néhány külföldi városban az idegenforgalom fejlesztésire irányuló tevékenység ismertetésével [Presentation of the measures introduced to increase Budapest tourism, especially in relation to the activities aiming to develop tourism in a few foreign cities] (Budapest, 1900)Google Scholar.

28 See Idegenforgalmi egyesület Budapesten. Alapszabálytervezet [Tourism Association in Budapest. Statutes project] (Budapest, 1900).

29 “Budapest mint nemzeti vagyon” [Budapest as national treasure], Budapesti Lapok. Fürdőügyi Ujság 2, no. 9 (1903): 9.

30 Ibid., 1; “Tout pour les étrangers,” Journal de Budapest. Organe des étrangers, 8 December 1901, 7; “‘Appel’ par Jean Halmos, maire de Budapest” and Dessewffy, A., “L'appel du maire Halmos,” both in Journal de Budapest, 22 December 1901, 1 and 4Google Scholar; and Dessewffy, Aristide de, “Transit des étrangers en Hongrie (I),” Journal de Budapest, 26 January 1902, 1–2Google Scholar.

31 “L'association pour le mouvement des étrangers,” Journal de Budapest, 5 January 1902; “Pour le mouvement des étrangers,” Journal de Budapest, 26 January 1902, 4.

32 S[alamon] Ö[dön], “Le Casino des Étrangers,” Journal de Budapest, 9 February 1902, 1.

33 For more on this, see “A Ciceronek” [The tourist guides], Magyar Székesfőváros, 16 June 1901, 7–8; and Dessewffy, Aristide de, “Transit des étrangers en Hongrie (II),” Journal de Budapest, 2 February 1902, 1–2Google Scholar.

34 [Gálos Kálmán], Az idegenforgalom. Kivonat a Magyarország és a külföld czimű könyvből [Tourism. Excerpt from the book Hungary and Abroad] (Budapest, 1902).

35 “Pour le mouvement des étrangers,” Journal de Budapest, 26 January 1902, 4.

36 See “L'Homme du jour: Le comte Michel de Eszterházy and Aristide Dessewffy,” Journal de Budapest, 18 September 1902, 4.

37 See “Az idegenforgalom. Idegenforgalmi és Utazási Vállalat r-t.” [Tourism. The Tourism and Travel Company] Budapesti Lapok. A Park-Club és Automobil-Club hivatalos értesitője, 9 November 1902, 17.

38 The Ministry granted the new association an annual subvention of 60,000 crowns, an amount the TTC was supposed to largely use for Budapest's touristic promotion abroad.

39 See “Conférence sur le mouvement des étrangers,” Journal de Budapest, 18 September 1902, 2–3.

40 These were related to the initiative voiced in 1887 by Berthold Weiss, a rich local merchant. Spurred by the opening of a railway line directly connecting Constantinople to Paris via Budapest, Weiss wanted to turn the Hungarian capital into a “Paris of the East” that would attract travelers from the Balkans and the Middle East. See Weiss, Berthold, Budapest és a keleti vasutak [Budapest and the eastern railroads] (Budapest, 1887)Google Scholar. Although as a sign of its interest the municipality debated the issue in one of its 1888 meetings, the issue of promoting urban tourism was dropped until it was picked up again in 1900.

41 Salamon, Edmond, “Cent mille étrangers à Budapest,” Journal de Budapest, 27 August 1902, 1Google Scholar; and “A monarkia középpontja” [The centerpoint of the monarchy], Budapesti Lapok. A Park-Club és Automobil-Club hivatalos értesitője, 15 January 1903, 9–10.

42 Viveur, , “Le Congrés intérnational des hoteliers”, Journal de Budapest, 28 September 1902, 2–3Google Scholar; and “Budapest világfürdő” [Budapest world spa] Budapesti Lapok. Fürdőügyi Ujság, 29 January 1903, 9.

43 Kálmán, Gálos, “A külföld nálunk. A reklám” [Foreign practices among us: The ads], Budapesti Lapok. A Park-Club és Automobil-Club hivatalos értesitője, 19 November 1902, 10–11Google Scholar.

44 See the musings on this topic in Nemo, , “Fővárosi séták” [Budapest promenades], Pesti Napló, 16 July 1904, 8Google Scholar.

45 Schlachta Kálmán, Idegen forgalom ügyében, [On tourism matters], Budapest City Archives (hereafter: BFL), IV 1409 b Elnöki névmutató 1900 A-In, vol. 1527, 9427/1900.

46 Such as the multilingual and freely distributed Egy hét Budapesten és Magyarországon [A week in Budapest and Hungary] (Budapest, 1902) and the lavishly illustrated Béla, Barta, ed., Budapest leirása/Description de Budapest/ Beschreibung von Budapest (Budapest, 1902)Google Scholar; Magyarország Képes Albuma/Album illustrée de la Hongrie/ Illustrated Album of Hungary/Illustrirtes Album von Ungarn/Иллюсрированный аллбумъ венгріи (Budapest, 1908); and Guide de Budapest. Dédié a MM. les participants de la VIIIe assemblée du congrès international des éditeurs (Budapest, 1913).

47 See “Jégpalota és pálmakert” [Ice palace and palms garden], Budapesti Lapok. Fürdőügyi Ujság, 2, no. 16 (1903): 9.

48 For similar attempts—though capitalizing not on a favorable comparison with Paris but on the artistic treasures available on the Museum-Insel made by Berlin boosters during the same period—see von Stockhausen, Tillman, “Markenpolitik in 19. Jahrhundert. Der Berliner Museumsinsel als Public-Relation-Idee” in Selling Berlin. Imagebildung und Stadtmarketing von der preussischer Residenz bis zur Bundeshauptstadt, ed. Biskup, Thomas and Schalenberg, Marc (Wiesbaden, 2008), 107—16Google Scholar.

49 See “A májusi Dunai ünnep” [The Danube Festivities in May], Budapesti Lapok, Fürdőügyi Ujság 2, no. 13, (1903): 3; “Ünnep a Dunán” [Celebration on the Danube], Jövendő, 17 May 1903; and “Rózsaünnep a Margitszigeten. A második Dunaünnep” [Rose festival on Margaret Island. The second Danube festivities], Egyetértés, 6 June 1904, 2. For a discussion of the first Danube Festival, see also Ákos, Kovács, Játek a tűzzel. Fejezetek a magyarországi tűzijátékok és díszkivilagítások XV-XX. századi történetéből [Playing with fire: Chapters from the history of fireworks and festive illuminations in Hungary, 15th –20th centuries](Budapest, 2001), 64–73Google Scholar.

50 “Virágkorzó gépkocsival. Verseny és virágcsata” [Flower pageant with automobile. Competition and battle with flowers], Egyetértés, 14 May 1904, 3–4.

51 See “A világváros felé” [Towards becoming a world city], Pesti Napló, 22 May 1904, 7–8.

52 See Gálos Kálmán, “A külföld nálunk. A reklám,” 10–11.

53 For such critiques targeting the Tourism and Travel Company and presenting it as working against national interests, see especially the articles in Magyar Székesfőváros.

54 Sz. Z. “Idegenforgalom” [Tourism], Magyar Szó, 21 May 1904, 8.

55 See István, Lelkes, A francia-magyar barátság aranykora, 1879–1889. Fejezet a magyar liberalizmus történetéből [The golden age of the French-Hungarian friendship, 1879–1889. A chapter from the history of Hungarian liberalism] (Budapest, 1932)Google Scholar.

56 For a discussion of these developments as they took place in a Parisian context, see Rearick, Charles, Pleasures of the Belle Époque: Entertainment and Festivity in Turn-of-the-Century France (New Haven, 1985)Google Scholar.

57 For interactions between Hungary and Japan, for instance, see “Japánok Ős-Budavárában” [Japanese in Ancient Buda Castle] Pesti Napló, 11 June 1904, 11.

58 See “Bikaviadalok Budapesten” [Bullfights in Budapest] Magyar Hírlap, 11 May 1904, 10; Pesti Hírlap, 12 May 1904, 12; and Budapesti Hírlap, 11 May 1904, 11.

59 “Bikaviadal Budapesten” [Bullfighting in Budapest] Magyarország és a Nagyvilág/Ungarn und Die Weitere Welt, 3, no. 5 (1904): 1–5, citation from 5.

60 “Bikaviadalok rendezése” [The organization of bullfights] Fővárosi Közlöny, 31 May 1904, 728.

61 “Fővárosi ügyek. A bikaviadal” [Capital city matters: Bullfighting] Pesti Hírlap, 19 May 1904, 5–6.

62 Ibid., 6. For a discussion of Budapest urban tourism from a similar standpoint, see “Emeljük az idegenforgalmat” [Increasing tourism figures] Budai Hírlap, 2 July 1904, 1.

63 “Főváros: Közgyulés. A bikaviadalok” [Capital city council: The bullfights] Pesti Napló, 19 May 1904, 13–14. It is interesting to note that the French government's position in regard of the bullfights—after a century-long policy of banishment motivated by the “barbaric character” of the practice—had changed only in 1894; leaders of the Third Republic allowing for courses libres (an older French version of bullfights) and corridas to be legally organized in Nîmes only after this date. For more on this, see Carretero, Lise and Zaretsky, Robert D., “On the Horns of a Dilemma: Paris, Languedoc and the Clash of Civilizations in Nineteenth-Century France,” French History 16 (2002): 416–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and George, Jocelyne, Paris-Province: De la révolution à la mondialisation (Paris, 1998), 230–31Google Scholar.

64 See “Fővárosi ügyek. A főváros közgyűlése” [Capital city matters: The public meeting of the Budapest town council], Budapesti Hírlap, 19 May 1904, 12.

65 “A bikaviadal” [The Bullfights] Pesti Napló, 20 May 1904, 11.

66 “Fővárosi ügyek. A bikaviadal” [Capital city matters: The Bullfights], Pesti Hírlap, 20 May 1904, 9.

67 “Bikaviadalok rendezése,” Fővárosi Közlöny, 31 May 1904, 728.

68 “Fővárosi ügyek. Bikaviadalok Budapesten” [Capital city matters: Bullfights in Budapest], Pesti Hírlap, 22 May 1904, 5; and “A bikaviadal” [The Bullfights], Budapesti Hírlap, 23 May 1904, 33.

69 “A bikaviadal” [The Bullfights], Magyar Hírlap, 20 May 1904, 13.

70 “A bikaviadal előtt” [Before the bullfights], Budapesti Hírlap, 7 June 1904, 9.

71 “A bikaviadal,” Budapesti Hírlap, 8 June 1904, 8.

72 See “A bikaviadal,” Budapesti Hírlap, 9 June 1904, 19.

73 The poster was displayed on Budapest streets for the first time on 22 May 1904. See “Bikaviadalok Budapesten” [Bullfights in Budapest], Budapesti Hírlap, 22 May 1904, 11; and “A budapesti bikaviadalok” [The Budapest bullfights], Kis Ujság, 23 May 1904, 3.

74 See “A bikaviadalok arénája” [The bullfight ring], Budapesti Hírlap, 11 June 1904, 11–12; and “A bikaviadalok” [The bullfights], Budapest, 9 June 1904, 9.

75 “A bikaviadal közönsége” [The public of the bullfights], Pesti Hírlap, 29 May 1904, 12 and 14.

76 For more on Pouly's career as a matador, see “A toreador. Beszélgetés a bikaviadorral” [The toreador. Conversing with a bullfighter], Budapesti Napló, 2 June 1904, 8.

77 “Hogy csinálnak idegenforgalmat nálunk és – Austriában” [How is tourism developed at home and in Austria], Pesti Napló, 21 June 1904, 10.

78 Zéta, , “A bikaviadal, a sajtó és egyéb” [Bullfighting, the press, and other matters], Magyar Közélet, 29 May 1904, 4–5Google Scholar.

79 Ibid.

80 Ibid., 8–9.

81 Székely Géza, “A bikaviadalok ellen” Magyar Szó, 31 May 1904, 8.

82 “Gran Corrida az állatkertben. Bikaviadal idegen-forgalom emelése céljából” [Gran Corrida in the zoo. Bullfighting aims to increase tourism], Pesti Hírlap, 12 June 1904, 10.

83 See “A bikaviadal közönsége” [The public of the bullfights], Magyar Hírlap, 29 May 1904, 10.

84 “Az első bikaviadal” [The first bullfights], Kis Ujság, 12 June 1904, 3.

85 “A harci bikák megérkeztek” [The bulls have arrived], Budapest, 31 May 1904, 9.

86 “Gran Corrida az állatkertben. Bikaviadal idegen-forgalom emelése céljából,” Pesti Hírlap, 12 June 1904, 10.

87 “Bikaviadal Budapesten” [Bullfights in Budapest], Pesti Napló, 12 June 1904, 8–9.

88 Ibid., 8.

89 Ibid., 8–9.

90 Ibid.

91 Ibid., 9.

92 For other reports describing the failure of the 12 June corrida to meet the spectators' expectations, see “A mai bikaviadal” [Today's bullfights], Magyar Hírlap, 12 June 1904, 6–7; and “A bikaviadal fiaskója” [Bullfighting fiasco], Alkotmány, 12 June 1904, 5.

93 “Pouly megsebesült” [Pouly is wounded], Magyar Hírlap, 12 June 1904, 7–8.

94 The available journalistic reports offer each a different count. See “A bikaviadalok második napja” [The second day of the bullfights], Pesti Napló, 13 June 1904, 7, for the higher estimate, and “A bikaviadalok folytatása” [The continuation of the bullfights], Egyetértés, 13 June 1904, 3, for the lower estimate.

95 “A harmadik bikaviadal” [The third bullfight], Budapest, 15 June 1904, 8–9.

96 Cf. “A második bikaviadal” [The second bullfight], Budapest, 13 June 1904, 5.

97 “Corridas de Toro. Bikaviadal Budapesten” [Corridas de toro. Bullfighting in Budapest], Egyetértés, 12 June 1904, 1–2.

98 “Bikaviadalok száz esztendővel ezelött” [Bullfights a hundred years ago], Pesti Napló, 26 May 1904, 11.

99 “Állatviadalok a régi Pest-Budán” [Animal fights in old Pest-Buda], Képes Folyóirat 36 (1904): 415–16.

100 “Bikaviadalok száz esztendővel ezelött,” Pesti Napló, 26 May 1904, 11.

101 Ibid.

102 Dénes, Pázmándy, “Budapesti bikaviadalok” [The Budapest bullfights], Magyarország és a Nagyvilág. Ungarn und die Weite Welt, III (1904) 6: 4–6Google Scholar.

103 For a recent history of Hungarian masculinity and its relationship to various aristocratic leisure practices and the emergence of physical skills requiring sports in turn-of-the-century Hungary, see Miklós, Hadas, A modern férfi születése [The birth of modern man] (Budapest, 2003)Google Scholar.

104 Although initially Pouly fils was hired to perform only three times in Budapest, as a result of his accident, he decided to cancel his other contracts and stay longer in the city. New bullfights conducted by other members of Pouly's team such as Clarion, Leiglon, and Méry took place in Budapest on 18 and 19 June. To secure better attendance for these new bullfights, the TTC decided to significantly lower the price of the tickets. For more on these, see “A bikaviadal” [The bullfights], Egyetértés, 16 June 1904, 5.

105 See “Bikaviadal a magyar bikákkal” [Bullfighting with Hungarian bulls], Pesti Napló, 22 June 1904, 13; “Bikaviadal magyar bikákkal” [Bullfighting with Hungarian bulls], Pesti Hírlap, 22 June 1904, 12.

106 Pál, Hoitsy, “A magyar bika” [The Hungarian bull], Egyetértés, 12 June 1904, 1–2Google Scholar.

107 “Magyar bikák az arénában” [Hungarian bulls in the ring], Egyetértés, 24 June 1904, 5.

108 “Magyar bika az arénában” [Hungarian bull in the ring], Pesti Napló, 26 June 1904, 13.

109 “A magyar bika” [The Hungarian bull], Budapesti Napló, 24 June 1904, 8.

110 “Magyar bika az arénában” Pesti Napló, 26 June 1904, 13. See also “A magyar bika passziv rezisztenciája” [The passive resistance of the Hungarian bull], Budapesti Napló, 26 June 1904, 6–7.

111 See Nemes, Robert, Budapest Once and Then (DeKalb, IL, 2005)Google Scholar.

112 “Gyémánt” [Diamond], Pesti Hírlap, 26 June 1904, 13.

113 “Magyar bika az Arénában” [Hungarian bull in the ring], Egyetértés, 26 June 1904, 4.

114 After this “shameful defeat,” Gyémánt was not only withdrawn from competition but, about a week later, was also slaughtered in the Pest abattoir, his meat being turned, perhaps not by chance, into German sausage, see “Tarka krónika. Sic transit…” [Mixed news: Sic transit…], Pesti Napló, 5 July 1904, 16.

115 See “Viadal a magyar bikával” [Bullfighting with a Hungarian bull], Magyar Hírlap, 29 June 1904, 13. Another patriotic connotation of the metaphorical connection between bulls and Magyarness was made in an illustration published in the Budapest press that showed Hungary in the posture of a tied-down bull, a posture the animal was brought to and held in by Vienna. See “Közösügyes bikaviadal” [Dualist matters at the bullfights], Uj Budapest, [A Budapest vasárnapi melléklete], 19 June 1904, 1.

116 Scheduled originally for Sunday 26 June, the new spectacle had to be delayed until 28 June, as a result of a massive downpour that damaged the roof of the arena. See “A vasárnapi bikaviadalt keddre halasztották” [The sunday bullfights were postponed until Tuesday], Pesti Hírlap, 27 June 1904, 5.

117 “Betyár az arénában” [Bandit in the ring], Budapesti Hírlap, 29 June 1904, 9. For other press descriptions, see “Bikaviadal” [Bullfighting], Budapesti Napló, 29 June 1904, 7; and “Betyár az arénában,” Pesti Napló, 29 June 1904, 14.

118 “A bikaviadal” [The bullfights], Pesti Hírlap, 30 June 1904, 8.

119 Ibid.

120 See “‘Rigó’ a pénteki bikaviadalon” [“Trush” at the Friday bullfights], Pesti Hírlap, 1 July 1904, 15.

121 “Az utolsó bikaviadal” [The last bullfight], Pesti Napló, 2 July 1904, 12. For a similar description, see “A mai bikaviadal” [Today's bullfight], Budapest, 2 July 1904, 9–10.

122 “Az utolsó bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 2 July 1904, 12.

123 See “Tarka krónika. Tisza István mutatóujja,” [Mixed news: Tisza István's index finger], Pesti Napló, 9 July 1904, 13.

124 “Betyár becsülete!” [Bandit's honor!], Egyetértés, 29 June 1904, 4; and “A lóvá tett publikum” [The public's abused trust], Magyar Székesfőváros, 21 June 1904, 7.

125 See “Pouly mégis fellép” [Pouly will still make his appearance], Pesti Hírlap, 7 July 1904, 12; and “Három utolsó bikaviadal” [Last three bullfights], Pesti Napló, 8 July 1904, 12.

126 See “A keddi bikaviadal” [Tuesday's bullfights], Budapesti Hírlap, 11 July 1904, 5.

127 “Bikaviadal izgalmakkal” [Bullfights trigger excitement], Pesti Napló, 10 July 1904, 11.

128 “A három utolsó bikaviadal” [The last three bullfights], Pesti Hirlap, 8 July 1904, 13.

129 “A bordeaux-i bikaviadalok” [The Bordeaux bullfights], Magyar Hírlap, 11 July 1904, 5.

130 See “Tisza István a bikaviadalon” [Tisza István at the bullfights], Pesti Hírlap, 12 July 1904, 8.

131 “A bikaviadal” [The bullfights], Budapesti Napló, 10 July 1904, 8.

132 See “Bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 13 July 1904, 14.

133 “A bikaviadal,” Magyar Hírlap, 10 July 1904, 14.

134 “Izgalom az arénában” [Excitement in the ring], Budapesti Hírlap, 10 July 1904, 11.

135 “A bikaviadal,” Budapesti Napló, 10 July 1904, 8.

136 “A mai bikaviadal” [Today's bullfights], Budapesti Hírlap, 13 July 1904, 9.

137 See “Bikaviadal izgalmakkal,” Pesti Napló, 10 July 1904, 11; and “Bucsuznak a toreadorok” [The farewell of the toreadors], Pesti Napló, 12 July 1904, 11.

138 “Pouly fils,” Budapesti Napló, 12 July 1904, 8.

139 “Pouly leszurja a bikát” [Pouly kills the bull], Egyetértés, 14 July 1904, 5.

140 “Az utolsó bikaviadal szenzácziója” [The sensational event of the last bullfight], Az Ujság, 14 July 1904, 9; and “Az utolsó bikaviadal” [The last bullfight], Budapesti Hírlap, 14 July 1904, 9.

141 “A bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 9. See also the reports in “Pouly tervez—Schmidt végez” [Pouly plans—Schmidt decides], Egyetértés, 15 July 1904, 5; “Bikaviadal tüntetéssel” [Bullfights trigger demonstrations], Kis Ujság,15 July 1904, 4–5; “Az utolsó bikaviadal,” Magyar Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 8; “Az utolsó bikaviadal,” Budapesti Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 6–7; and “Bikaviadal tüntetéssel,” Budapest, 15 July 1904, 7.

142 See “A bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 9.

143 See “A megvadult bivaly” [The raging bull], Budapesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 7.

144 “Rendőr mint toreador” [Policeman as toreador], Pesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 11.

145 “Egy magyar espada” [A Hungarian espada], Budapesti Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 9.

146 For slightly different versions of this event, see the reports under the title “A rendőr mint espada” [The policeman as espada], in Pesti Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 9; Az Ujság, 15 July 1904, 10; and Magyar Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 8.

147 See “Az utolsó bikaviadal” [The last bullfight], Budapesti Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 6–7; and “A bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 9.

148 “Az utolsó bikaviadal,” Budapesti Hírlap, 15 July 1904, 6.

149 Gyula, Barcsay, “Bikaviadal,” Magyar Szó, 18 May 1904, 1–5Google Scholar, citation from 1.

150 “Bikaviadalok,” Magyar Szó, 19 May 1904, 5–6.

151 “A bika bosszuja” [The revenge of the bull], Magyar Szó, 20 May 1904, 9.

152 X.Y. “Bikaviadalok,” Magyar Szó, 20 May 1904, 8–9.

153 “A bikaviadal,” Pesti Napló, 15 July 1904, 9.

154 For more on this, see my chapter “From Friends of Nature to Tourist-Soldiers: Nation Building and Tourism in Hungary, 1873–1914” in Turizm: The Russian and Eastern European Tourist under Capitalism and Socialism, ed. Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker (Ithaca, 2006), 64–81.

155 For more examples for the latter, see “A bikaviadalok ellen,” Alkotmány, 23 June 1904, 8; and “Az espada és a rendőr,” Alkotmány, 15 July 1904, 6.

156 Sugar, Peter F., “An Underrated Event: The Hungarian Constitutional Crisis of 1905–06,” East European Quarterly 15, no. 3 (1981): 281–306Google Scholar.

157 Gábor, Gyáni, Hétköznapi Budapest. Nagyvárosi élet a századfordulón [Everyday Budapest. metropolitan life at the turn of the century], (Budapest, 1995)Google Scholar and the special issue of Budapesti Negyed 16–17 (1997), Tömegkultúra a századfordulós Budapesten [Mass culture in turn-of-the-century Budapest].

158 For more on this, see Bihari Péter, Lövészárkok a hátországban, 57–63; and Gyáni Gábor, Budapest –túl jón és rosszon, 67–68.

159 For a brief overview of the festivities held on this occasion, see “A bujdosók hazatérése” [The return of the fugitives], Vasárnapi Ujság, 4 November 1906, 710.

160 Dr. P. I. “A XVI. Nemzetközi Orvosi Kongresszus” [The 16th international medical congress], Vasárnapi Ujság, 29 August 1909, 721–22; and “Német Wagner-előadások Budapesten”[German Wagner spectacles in Budapest], Vasárnapi Ujság, 16 May 1912, 416. See also Klaudy József, “Az európai legelső utazási iroda története,” esp. 236.

161 On attempts to turn Saint Stephen's Day into a National Holiday and its celebration into a Budapest tourist attraction, see Árpád, Balás, ed., A Szent István napjának ünneplése. Az Országos Nemzeti Szövetség mozgalma Szent István napjának nemzeti ünnepé avatása érdekében [The celebration of Saint Stephen's day. The campaign of the countrywide national alliance for turning Saint Stephen's Day into a national holiday], (Budapest, 1903), 32–33Google Scholar; and Bertalan, Csudáky, “Szent István-napi ünneplések,” [Saint Stephen's Day festivities], Vasárnapi Ujság, 29 August 1909, 729–30Google Scholar.

162 On Bárczy's mayorship, see a book and article by Gyöngyi, Erdei: Fejezetek a Bárczy-korszak történetéből. Budapest müvelődespolitikája a századelőn [Chapters from the history of the Bárczy period. Budapest's cultural policies at the turn of the century] (Budapest, 1991)Google Scholar and “A mintaadó polgármester. Bárczy István beruházási programja (1906–1914)” [The model mayor. Bárczy István's financial and economic development program], Budapesti Negyed 3 (1995): 97–116; as well as András, Sípos, Várospolitika és városigazgatás Budapesten, 1890–1918 [Municipal politics and administration in Budapest, 1890–1918] (Budapest, 1998)Google Scholar.

163 Kornél, Szemennyei “Idegenforgalmunk emelése” [Increasing our tourism], Városi Szemle, (1914) 1: 28–41Google Scholar. Citation from 39.