Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-qxdb6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T08:25:13.277Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Religious Nationalism and Religious Freedom in Asia: Mapping Regional Trends in a Global Phenomenon

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 August 2021

Jaclyn Neo*
Affiliation:
National University of Singapore
Brett G. Scharffs
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: jaclyn.neo@nus.edu.sg

Abstract

In recent times, religious nationalism has emerged as a major basis for identity and mobilization. In Asia, religious nationalism specifically challenges existing pluralist approaches to constitutional government, which have generally been seen as necessary to ensure peaceful coexistence. The increasing alignment of religious and national boundaries has the worrying capacity to neutralize the “cross-cutting cleavages” that could otherwise vitiate the centrifugal tendencies of pluralistic societies. In the context of pluralistic Asia, therefore, religious nationalism is fundamentally anchored in a rejection of ethnic, religious, cultural, and even legal plurality. This has serious consequences for the freedoms of religious groups, particularly minority groups and minorities within dominant religious groups. This article introduces the Special Issue studying not only the phenomenon of religious nationalism in Asia, but also its impact on the rights of religious groups and their religious freedoms, broadly conceived.

Type
Religious Nationalism and Religious Freedom in Asia
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Asian Journal of Law and Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, Benedict (1991) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso.Google Scholar
ASEAN.org (2012) “ASEAN Member States,” https://asean.org/asean/asean-member-states/ (accessed 17 October 2019).Google Scholar
Audi, Robert (2009) “Nationalism, Patriotism, and Cosmopolitanism in an Age of Globalization.” 13 Journal of Ethics 365–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, Philip W. (2009) Religious Nationalism in Modern Europe: If God Be for Us, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Beech, Hannah (2019a) “Buddhists Go to Battle: When Nationalism Overrides Pacifism,” https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/08/world/asia/buddhism-militant-rise.html (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Beech, Hannah (2019b) “Shared Buddhist Faith Offers No Shield From Myanmar Military,” https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/world/asia/myanmars-rakhine-buddhsts-rohingya.html (accessed 17 October 2019).Google Scholar
Bielefeldt, Heiner (2012) “Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Human Right Under Pressure.” 1 Oxford Journal of Law and Religion 1535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, Jonah (2019) “How Hinduism Became a Political Weapon in India,” https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/05/hindu-nationalism-narendra-modi-india-election/590053/ (accessed 28 September 2019).Google Scholar
Bowden, Brett (2003) “Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism: Irreconcilable Differences or Possible Bedfellows?” 5 National Identities 235–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, David (2000) Contemporary Nationalism: Civic, Ethnocultural & Multicultural Politics, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers (2012) “Religion and Nationalism: Four Approaches.” 18 Nations and Nationalism 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coakley, John (2018) “National Identity and the ‘Kohn Dichotomy’.46 Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity 252–71.Google Scholar
Conversi, Daniele (2002) “Conceptualizing Nationalism: An Introduction to Walker Connor’s Work,” in Conversi, D., ed., Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism, London: Routledge, 1–23.Google Scholar
Coyer, Paul (2015) “(Un)holy Alliance: Vladimir Putin, The Russian Orthodox Church and Russian Exceptionalism,” https://www.forbes.com/sites/paulcoyer/2015/05/21/unholy-alliance-vladimir-putin-and-the-russian-orthodox-church/#4725d59327d5 (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Delanty, Gerard (2006) “Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism: The Paradox of Modernity,” in Delanty, G. & Kumar, K., eds., The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism, London: SAGE, 357–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durham, Cole Jr (1996) “Perspectives on Religious Liberty: A Comparative Framework,” in van der Vyver, J. D. & Witte, J. Jr, eds., Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Legal Perspectives, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 144.Google Scholar
Eastwood, Jonathan & Prevalakis, Nikolas (2010) “Nationalism, Religion, and Secularization: An Opportune Moment for Research.” 52 Review of Religious Literature 90–111.Google Scholar
Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) (2018) “Democracy Index 2018: Me too? Political Participation, Protest, and Democracy,” http://www.eiu.com/Handlers/WhitepaperHandler.ashx?fi=Democracy_Index_2018.pdf&mode=wp&campaignid=Democracy2018 (accessed 31 October 2019).Google Scholar
Edwards, John (2002) “Sovereignty or Separation? Contemporary Political Discourse in Canada,” in Conversi, D., ed., Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism, London: Routledge, 130–49.Google Scholar
Emerson, Rupert (1960) From Empire to Nation: The Rise of Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples, Boston: Beacon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedland, Roger (2001) “Religious Nationalism and the Problem of Collective Representation.” 27 Annual Review of Sociology 125–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frydenlund, Iselin (2017) “Religious Liberty for Whom? The Buddhist Politics of Religious Freedom During Myanmar’s Transition to Democracy.” 35 Nordic Journal of Human Rights 5573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuller, Paul (2019) “Myanmar and Buddhist Extremism,” https://theconversation.com/myanmar-and-buddhist-extremism-86125 (accessed 17 October 2019).Google Scholar
Ganguly, Sumit (2019) “India’s Prime Minister Modi Pursues Politics of Hindu Nationalism: What Does That Mean?,” https://theconversation.com/indias-prime-minister-modi-pursues-politics-of-hindu-nationalism-what-does-that-mean-117794 (accessed 17 October 2019).Google Scholar
Gellner, Ernest (1983) Nations and Nationalism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Glendon, Mary Ann (2018) “Making the Case for Religious Freedom in Secular Societies.” 33 Journal of Law and Religion 329–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorski, Philip S., & Türkmen-Dervişoğlu, Gülay (2012) “Religion, Nationalism, and International Security: Creation Myths and Social Mechanisms,” in Seiple, C., Hoover, D. R., & Otis, P., eds., Routledge Handbook of Religion and Security, Oxon: Routledge, 136–47.Google Scholar
Gorski, Philip S., & Türkmen-Dervişoğlu, Gülay (2013) “Religion, Nationalism and Violence: An Integrated Approach.” 39 Annual Review of Sociology 193210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griswold, Eliza (2019) “The Violent Toll of Hindu Nationalism in India,” https://www.newyorker.com/news/on-religion/the-violent-toll-of-hindu-nationalism-in-india (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Hibbard, Scott W. (2010) Religious Politics and Secular States: Egypt, India and the United States, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992) Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman (2015) Beyond Religious Freedom: The New Global Politics of Religion, Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Jaffrelot, Christophe (2007) Hindu Nationalism: A Reader, Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, Fergus, & Johan, Purnonmo (2016) “Tens of Thousands of Indonesian Muslims Protest Against Capital’s Governor,” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-protests/tens-of-thousands-of-indonesian-muslims-protest-against-capitals-governor-idUSKBN12Z07W (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Juergensmeyer, Mark (1994) The New Cold War?: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Juergensmeyer, Mark (2010) “The Global Rise of Religion.” 64 Australian Journal of International Affairs 262–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, Robert J. (2002) “Ethnicity and Nationality: The Twin-Matrices of Nationalism,” in Conversi, D., ed., Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism, London and New York: Routledge, 248–68.Google Scholar
Keck, Zachary (2014) “Asia Leads World in Religious Diversity,” https://thediplomat.com/2014/04/asia-leads-world-in-religious-diversity/ (accessed 28 March 2018).Google Scholar
Khodarkovsky, Michael (2019) “Putin’s Dream of Godliness: Holy Russia,” https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/22/opinion/putin-russia-orthodox-church.html (accessed 28 September 2019).Google Scholar
Kohn, Hans (1945) The Idea of Nationalism, New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kohn, Hans (1963) Nationalism: Its Meaning and History, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, Raymond L. M. (1990) “The State, Religious Nationalism, and Ethnic Rationalization in Malaysia.” 13 Ethnic and Racial Studies 482502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, Natan (2000) Religion, Belief, and International Human Rights, New York: Orbis Books.Google Scholar
Lindholm, Tore (2014) “Freedom of Religion or Belief from a Human Rights Perspective,” in Gravaas, H. A., Sauer, C., Engelsviken, T., et al., eds., Freedom of Belief and Christian Mission, Oxford: Regnum Books International, 317.Google Scholar
Lindholm, Tore, Durham, W. Cole Jr, & Tahzib-Lie, Bahia G. (2013) Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.Google Scholar
Moar, Zohar (2017) “Hans Kohn: The Idea of Secularized Nationalism.” 23 Nations and Nationalism 665–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moustafa, Tamir (2018) Constituting Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mrachek, Alexis (2019) “How Putin Uses Russian Orthodoxy to Grow His Empire,” https://www.heritage.org/europe/commentary/how-putin-uses-russian-orthodoxy-grow-his-empire (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Neo, Jaclyn L. (2006) “Malay Nationalism, Islamic Supremacy and the Constitutional Bargain in the Multi-Ethnic Composition of Malaysia.” 13 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 95118.Google Scholar
Neo, Jaclyn L. (2015) Keeping the Faith: A Study of Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion in ASEAN—Synthesis Report, Java: Human Rights Resource Centre.Google Scholar
Neo, Jaclyn L. (2016) “Religious Freedom and the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration: Prospects and Challenges.” 14 The Review of Faith & International Affairs 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neo, Jaclyn L. (2017) “Realizing the Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion: The Limited Normative Force of the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration.” 17 Human Rights Law Review 729–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nussbaum, Martha C. (1996) “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” in Cohen, J., ed., For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 155–62.Google Scholar
Pew Research, Centre (2012) “The Global Research Landscape,” https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Pew Research, Centre (2014) “Global Religious Diversity,” http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/ (retrieved 1 March 2018).Google Scholar
Philpott, Daniel, & Timothy Samuel, Shah (2016) “In Defense of Religious Freedom: New Critics of a Beleaguered Human Rights.” 31 Journal of Law and Religion 380–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rieffer, Barbara-Ann J. (2003) “Religion and Nationalism: Understanding the Consequences of a Complex Relationship.” 3 Ethnicities 215–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1783) Considérations sur le Gouvernement de Pologne, et sur sa Réformation Projetée [Considerations on the Government of Poland and on Its Proposed Reformation], Lausanne: P.F. Gosse.Google Scholar
Scharffs, Brett G. (2016) “Trends in Regulating Religion in Southeast Asia: Differentiating Core, Important, and Desirable Factors Regarding Religion and the Rule of Law.” 14 The Review of Faith & International Affairs 1627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheppele, Kim Lane (2004) “Constitutional Ethnography: An Introduction.” 38 Law & Society Review 389406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Anthony D. (2003) Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity, Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Soper, Christopher J., & Fetzer, Joel S. (2018) Religion and Nationalism in Global Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stepan, Alfred (2000) “Religion, Democracy and the ‘Twin Tolerations’.” 11 Journal of Democracy 3757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers (2015) “The World that Smith Made,” in Shakman Hurd, E., Mahmood, S., & Danchin, P. G., eds., Politics of Religious Freedom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 231–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, Hui Yee (2020) “ASEAN divided on Rohingya Crisis: Poll,” https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/asean-divided-on-rohingya-crisis-poll (accessed 26 March 2020).Google Scholar
Toft, Monica Duffy, Philpott, Daniel, & Shah, Timothy S. (2011) God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics, New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
UN Office of the High Commissioner (2014) “Press Statement on the Visit to the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam by the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief,” https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14914&LangID=E (accessed 29 September 2019).Google Scholar
Van der Veer, Peter (1994) Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India, Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Widianto, Stanley (2019) “Indonesian Christian Politician Held on Blasphemy Charges Released from Jail,” https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/indonesian-christian-politician-held-on-blasphemy-charges-released-from-jail/2019/01/24/29e37422–1fac-11e9-bda9-d6efefc397e8_story.html (accessed 26 September 2019).Google Scholar
Witte, John Jr (2001) “A Dickensian Era of Religious Rights: An Update on Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective.” 42 William and Mary Law Review 707–70.Google Scholar
Zucca, Lorenzo (2013) “Lautsi: A Commentary on a Decision by the ECtHR Grand Chamber.” 11 International Journal of Constitutional Law 218–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar