Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T05:32:38.526Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

An invited article: Bilingual education of majority-language children: The Immersion experiments in review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 November 2008

Fred Genesee
Fred Genesee*
Affiliation:
McGill University
*
Dr. Fred Genesee, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Docteur Penfield Avenue, Montreal, PQ, CanadaH3A IBI
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Second-language “Immersion” school programs that have been developed in Canada and the United States during the last two decades are described and the results of evaluative research pertaining to them are reviewed. Major Immersion program alternatives (i.e., Early, Delayed, and Late variants) along with their theoretical bases and pedagogical characteristics are described first. Research findings are then discussed with respect to the impact of participation in an Immersion program on the students' native-language development, academic achievement, second-language proficiency, and on their attitudes and second-language use. Also, the suitability of Immersion in different geographical/social settings and for students with distinctive, potentially handicapping characteristics is considered. It is concluded that second-language Immersion programs are feasible and effective forms of education for majority-language children with diverse characteristics.

Type
Articles
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 4 , Issue 1 , March 1983 , pp. 1 - 46
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adiv, E. An analysis of second language performance in two types of immersion programs. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Education in Second Languages, McGill University, 1980a.Google Scholar
Adiv, E. A comparative evaluation of three immersion programs: Grades 10 and 11. Unpublished manuscript. Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, 1980b.Google Scholar
Anisfeld, E., & Lambert, W. E.Evaluative reactions of bilingual and monolingual children to spoken languages. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 69, 89–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asher, J., & Garcia, R.The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 1969, 8, 334–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asher, J. J., & Price, B. S.The learning strategy of the total physical response: Some age differences. Child Development, 1967, 38, 1219–1227.Google Scholar
Bever, T. The cognitive basis for linguistic structures. In Hayes, J. R. (Ed.), Cognition and the development of language. New York: Wiley, 1970, 279–362.Google Scholar
Brown, R., Cazden, C., & Bellugi, U. The child's grammar from I to III. In Brown, R. (Ed.), Psycholinguistics. New York: Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Bruck, M.The suitability of early French immersion programs for the language-disabled child. Canadian Journal of Education, 1978, 3, 51–72.Google Scholar
Bruck, M.Language impaired children: Performance in an additive bilingual education program. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1982, 3, 45–60.Google Scholar
Bruck, M., Lambert, W. E., & Tucker, G. R. Cognitive consequences of bilingual schooling: The St. Lambert project through Grade 6. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1976.Google Scholar
Bruck, M., Tucker, G. R., & Jakimik, J. Are French immersion programs suitable for working class children? In Engle, W. Von Raffler (Ed.), Prospects in child language. The Hague: Mouton, 1975.Google Scholar
Burstall, C.Primary French in the balance. Windsor, England: NFER Publishing Co., 1974.Google Scholar
Buteau, M., & Gougeon, H. Evaluation of the 1974–75 Lakeshore School Board partial French immersion program: Levels four, five and six. Unpublished manuscript, Faculty of Education, McGill University, 1975.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N.Language and mind. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1972.Google Scholar
Cohen, A.The Culver City Spanish immersion program: The first two years. Modern Language Journal, 1974, 58, 95–103.Google Scholar
Cummins, J.Educational implications of mother tongue maintenance in minority-language groups. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1978, 34, 395–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J.Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 1979, 49, 222–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Los Angeles: Evaluation, Experimentation and Assessment Center, 1981, 1–50.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. The effects of different French immersion programs on the language and academic skills of children from various socioeconomic backgrounds. M.A. thesis, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1975.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. A., Holobow, N., & Lambert, W. E. A comparison of three elementary school alternatives for learning French: Children at grades four and five. Department of Psychology, McGill University, March 1977a.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. A., Holobow, N., & Lambert, W. E. Early and late French immersion: A comparison of children at grade seven. Department of Psychology, McGill University, April 1977b.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. A., Holobow, N., Lambert, W. E., & Tucker, G. R. A comparison of three elementary school alternatives for learning French: Children at grades 5 and 6. Unpublished research report, Department of Psychology, McGill University, December, 1977.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. A., Lambert, W. E., & Gutter, R.French immersion programs and students' social attitudes: A multidimensional investigation. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 1979, 19, 13–28.Google Scholar
Cziko, G. A., Lambert, W. E., Sidoti, N., & Tucker, G. R. Graduates of early immersion: Retrospective views of grade 11 students and their parents. In St. Clair, R. N. & Giles, H. (Eds.), The social and psychological contexts of language. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1980.Google Scholar
Diebold, A. R. The consequences of early bilingualism in cognitive development and personality formation. In Norbeck, E., Price-Williams, D., & McCord, W. M. (Eds.), The study of personality: An interdisciplinary appraisal. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968, 218–245.Google Scholar
Dockrell, W. B., & Brosseau, J. F.The correlates of second language learning by young children. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 1967, 13, 295–298.Google Scholar
Edwards, H. P., McCarrey, H. A., & Fu, L.Evaluation of second language program extensions offered in grades 3, 4, and 5: Final report 1979–80. Ottawa: Ottawa Roman Catholic Separate School Board, 1980.Google Scholar
Fathman, A.The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning, 1975, 25, 245–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E.Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1972.Google Scholar
Gendron, J. D.Commission of inquiry on the position of the French language and on language rights in Québec: Language of Work. Québec: L'Editeur officiel du Québec, 1972.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. students' attitudes toward French immersion. Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1974.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.The role of intelligence in second language learning. Language Learning, 1976a, 26, 267–280.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.The suitability of immersion programs for all children. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1976b, 32, 494–515.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.Addendum to evaluation of the 1975–76 grade 11 French immersion class. A report submitted to the Instructional Services Department, The Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, 1977a.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. French immersion and students' perceptions of themselves and others: An ethnolinguistic perspective. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1977b.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.A longitudinal evaluation of an early immersion school program. Canadian Journal of Education, 1978a, 3, 31–50.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.Is there an optimal age for starting second language instruction? McGill Journal of Education, 1978b, 13, 145–154.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.Second language learning and language attitudes. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 1978c, 16, 19–42.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.Acquisition of reading skills in immersion programs. Foreign Language Annals, 1979, 12, 71–77.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. Response to M. Swain: Linguistic environment as a factor in the acquisition of target language skills. In Anderson, R. (Ed.), Second language acquisition and use under different circumstances. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1980.Google Scholar
Genesee, F.A comparison of early and late second language learning. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 1981a, 13, 115–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F. Evaluation of the Laurenval early partial and early total immersion programs. Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1981b.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. Bilingualism and biliteracy: A study of cross-cultural contact in a bilingual community. In Edwards, J. R. (Ed.), The social psychology of reading. Silver Spring, Maryland: Institute of Modern Languages, 1981c, 147–172.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Bourhis, R.The social psychological significance of code switching in cross-cultural communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 1982, 1, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F., & Chaplin, S. Evaluation of the 1974–75 grade 11 French immersion class. Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1976.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Lambert, W. E.Trilingual education of majority language children. Child Development, 1983, Vol. 54, 105–114.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Leblanc, M. A comparative evaluation of three alternative French immersion programs: Grades 7 and 8. Department of Psychology, McGill University, January 1978.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Morcos, C. A comparative evaluation of three alternative French immersion programs: Grades 8 and 9. Department of Psychology, McGill University, December 1978.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., Morin, S., & Allister, T.Evaluation of the 1973–74 grade 7 French immersion class: June 1974. Instructional Services, Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, Quebec, 1974.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., Polich, E., & Stanley, M. H.An experimental French immersion program at the secondary school level – 1969 to 1974. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1977, 33, 318–332.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Stanley, M. H.The development of English writing skills in French immersion programs. Canadian Journal of Education, 1976, 3, 1–18.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Stefanovic, B.Evaluation of the 1975–76 grade 11 French immersion class. Instructional Services, The Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, 1976.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., Tucker, G. R., & Lambert, W. E.Communication skills of bilingual children. Child Development, 1975, 46, 1010–1014.Google Scholar
Genesee, F., Tucker, G. R., & Lambert, W. E.The development of ethnic identity and ethnic role-taking skills in children from different school settings. International Journal of Psychology, 1978, 13, 39–57.Google Scholar
Gray, V.Evaluation of the grade 6 French immersion program in Fredericton. Psychology Department, University of New Brunswick, February 1981.Google Scholar
Harley, B. (Ed.). Alternative programs for teaching French as a second language in the schools of the Carleton and Ottawa School Boards. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1976, 33, 193–215.Google Scholar
Harley, B., & Swain, M.An analysis of verb form and function in the speech of French immersion pupils. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 1977, 14, 31–40.Google Scholar
Katz, P. A.Towards the elimination of racism. New York: Pergamon, 1976.Google Scholar
Krashen, S. D. Bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, 1981, 51–79.Google Scholar
Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R.Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 1979, 13, 573–582.Google Scholar
Lambert, W. E. The social psychology of language: A perspective for the 1980's. In Giles, H., Robinson, W. P., & Smith, P. M. (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspectives. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1980, 415–424.Google Scholar
Lambert, W. E., & Tucker, G. R.The bilingual education of children: The St. Lambert experiment. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1972.Google Scholar
Lamy, P.Language and ethnolinguistic identity: The bilingualism question. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1979, 20, 23–36.Google Scholar
Lapkin, S., Andrew, C. M., Harley, B., Swain, M., & Kamin, J.The immersion centre and the dual-track school: A study of the relationship between school environment and achievement in a French immersion program. Canadian Journal of Education, 1981, 2, 1–23.Google Scholar
Lapkin, S., Swain, M., Kamin, J., & Hanna, G. Late immersion in perspective: The Peel study. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1982, in press.Google Scholar
Lenneberg, E.Biological foundations of language. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967.Google Scholar
Lewis, G.Attitudes to language among bilingual children and adults in Wales. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1975, 4, 103–125.Google Scholar
Lorge-Thorndike intelligence Tests. Toronto: Nelson, 1967.Google Scholar
Lupul, M. Bilingual education and the Ukrainians in Western Canada: Possibilities and problems. In Swain, M. (Ed.), Bilingualism in Canadian education: Issues and research. Canadian Society for the Study of Education Yearbook, 1976, 3, 86–106.Google Scholar
Macnamara, J.Nurseries, streets and classrooms. Modern Language Journal, 1973, 57, 250–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Elementary. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971.Google Scholar
Morrison, F.Evaluation of the second language learning (French) programs in schools of the Ottawa and Carleton Boards of Education: Eighth Annual Report, 1981.Google Scholar
Oyama, S.A sensitive period for the acquisition of a non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 1976, 5, 261–285.Google Scholar
Oyama, S.The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 1978, 16, 1–17.Google Scholar
Penfield, W., & Roberts, L.Speech and brain mechanisms. New York: Atheneum, 1959.Google Scholar
Polich, E.Report on the evaluation of the lower elementary French program through grade 3. Instructional Services, Protestant School Board of Greater Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, 1973.Google Scholar
Price, E.Bilingual education in Wales: 5–11. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1978.Google Scholar
Raven, J. C.Coloured progressive matrices: Sets A, Ab, B. London: Lewis, 1962.Google Scholar
Rhodes, N. C., Clark, J. L. D., & Tucker, G. R.Foreign languages in the elementary school: A practical guide. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1982.Google Scholar
Samuels, D. D., & Griffore, R. J.The Plattsburgh French language immersion program: Its influence on intelligence and self esteem. Language Learning, 1979, 29, 45–52.Google Scholar
San Diego City Schools. Bilingual demonstration project. April 1982.Google Scholar
Seliger, H., Krashen, S., & Ladefoged, P.Maturational constraints on the acquisition of second language accent. Language Sciences, 1975, 36, 20–22.Google Scholar
Skutnabb-Kanagas, T.Guest worker or immigrant: Different ways of reproducing an underclass. Rollig-Papir, 1980, 21.Google Scholar
Stern, H. H.Foreign languages in primary education. UNESCO, 1963.Google Scholar
Stern, H. H., Swain, M., & McLean, L. D.Three approaches to learning French. Toronto: OISE Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Stevens, F. Second language learning in an activity-centred program. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Educational Technology, Concordia University, 1976.Google Scholar
Swain, M.French immersion: Early, late or partial? Canadian Modern Language Review, 1978, 34, 577–585.Google Scholar
Swain, M. Linguistic environment as a factor in the acquisition of target language skills. In Anderson, R. (Ed.), Second language acquisition and use under different circumstances. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1981.Google Scholar
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S.Evaluating bilingual education: A Canadian case study. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1982, in press.Google Scholar
Taylor, D. M., & Simard, L. Language planning and intergroup relations: Anglophone and Francophone attitudes toward Bill 101. In Bourhis, R. Y. (Ed.), Conflict and language planning in Quebec. Bristol, England: Tieto, 1982, in press.Google Scholar
Trites, R.Primary French immersion: Disabilities and prediction of success. Toronto: OISE Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Troike, R.Research evidence for the effectiveness of bilingual education. National Association for Bilingual Education Journal, 1978, 3, 13–24.Google Scholar
Tucker, G. R., Hamayan, E., & Genesee, F.Affective, cognitive and social factors in second language acquisition. Canadian Modern Language Review, 1976, 23, 214–226.Google Scholar
Tucker, G. R., Lambert, W. E., & d'Anglejan, A. Are French immersion programs suitable for working class children? A pilot investigation. Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1972.Google Scholar