Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-m8s7h Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-17T17:12:13.886Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Welfare of Farmed Foxes Vulpes Vulpes and Alopex Lagopus in Relation to Housing and Management: A Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

A J Nimon  and
D M Broom
A J Nimon
Affiliation:
Cambridge University Animal Welfare Information Centre, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
D M Broom*
Affiliation:
Cambridge University Animal Welfare Information Centre, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
*
† Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Foxes have been kept in captivity in Europe for the purpose of fur production for 70-80 years. In comparison with the main domesticated animal species, this is a very recent intervention. This paper reviews available evidence concerning the welfare of farmed foxes in relation to housing and management. The bulk of the literature relates to early handling of cubs, with the intention of reducing their subsequent fear of humans, and to simple changes in the cage environment that may provide environmental enrichment for foxes. Fear of humans appears to be a significant and pervasive problem, and the barrenness of cages is also a cause for concern. The extent of abnormal behaviours and reproductive failure, both indicative of quite severe welfare problems, is not sufficiently documented. Some housing and management practices are less detrimental than others; nonetheless, the evidence suggests that the welfare of farmed foxes is poor.

Keywords

animal welfareenrichmentfearfoxeshousingmanagementreproduction
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 10 , Issue 3 , August 2001 , pp. 223 - 248
Copyright
© 2001 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ables, E D 1969 Home range studies of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Journal of Mammalogy 50: 108–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alasuutari, S and Korhonen, H 1992 Environmental enrichment in relation to behaviour in farmbred blue foxes. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Science (Suppl. 9): 569–573Google Scholar
Bakken, M 1992 The relationship between open field activity, competition capacity and first year reproductive success among farmed silver fox cubs. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Science (Suppl. 9): 520–528Google Scholar
Bakken, M 1993a Reproduction in farmed silver fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes) in relation to own competition capacity and that of neighbouring vixens. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics 110: 305–311CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakken, M 1993b The relationship between competition capacity and reproduction in farmed silver fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes). Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics 110: 147–155Google ScholarPubMed
Bakken, M 1994a Infanticidal behaviour and reproductive performance in relation to competition capacity among farmed silver fox vixens Vulpes vulpes. Dr Scient afhandling, Zoologisk Institut, A VH Universitetet in Trondheim (PhD thesis)Google Scholar
Bakken, M 1994b The effects of an improved man-animal relationship on the reproductive performance, sex-ratio in the litters and on cub behaviour ontogeny of farmed silver fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes). In: Kristensen K B and Rasmussen M (eds) 28th International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, Denmark, 3-6 August p 35. Ministry of Agriculture, National Institute of Animal Science: DenmarkGoogle Scholar
Bakken, M 1998 The effect of an improved man-animal relationship on sex ratio in litters and on growth and behaviour in cubs among farmed silver fox (Vulpes vulpes). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 56: 309–317Google Scholar
Bakken, M, Braastad, B O, Harri, M, Jeppesen, L L and Pedersen, V 1994 Production conditions, behaviour and welfare of farm foxes. Scientifur 18: 233–248Google Scholar
Bakken, M, Moe, R and Smith, A 1993 Radio telemetry: a method of evaluating stress and learning ability in the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes). In: Nichelmann, M, Wierenga, H K and Baun, S (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology, Berlin, Germany pp 591–594. Humboldt University: Berlin, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Belyaev, D 1979 Destabilizing selection as a factor in domestication. Journal of Heredity 70: 301–308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belyaev, D, Plyusnina, I and Trut, L 1985 Domestication in the silver fox (Vulpes fulvus Desm): changes in physiological boundaries of the sensitive period of primary socialization. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 13: 359–370CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belyaev, D and Trut, L 1963 Experience with the selection of silver foxes for behavioural type and its importance in the problem of the evolutionary reorganisation of the reproductive function. In: The Physiological Basis of Complex Forms of Behaviour, pp 13-14. AN SSSR M-L [Published in Russian]Google Scholar
Bertelsen, N 1996 Effekt at tidlig stimulering og adgang til thelårskasse hos blåraeve (Alopex lagopus). Speciale i Etologi, Zoologisk Institut, Københavns Universitet. Copenhagen University Press: Copenhagen, DenmarkGoogle Scholar
Bertelsen, N 1996 Effekt at tidlig stimulering og adgang til thelårskasse hos blåraeve (Alopex lagopus). Speciale i Etologi, Zoologisk Institut, Københavns Universitet. Copenhagen University Press: Copenhagen, DenmarkGoogle Scholar
Braastad, B O 1990a Abnormal behaviour in farmed silver fox vixens (Vulpes vulpes L.): tail-biting and infanticide. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 17: 376–377Google Scholar
Braastad, B O 1990b Individual variation in maternal behaviour of silver foxes. Third Nordic Symposium of the Society for Veterinary Ethology, Sem, Asker, 2 November ρ 20.Google Scholar
Braastad, B O 1992 Progress in the ethology of foxes and mink. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Science (Suppl. 9): 487–504Google Scholar
Braastad, B O 1993 Periparturient behaviour of successfully reproducing farmed silver-fox vixens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 37: 125–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braastad, B O 1994 Reproduction in silver fox vixens in breeding boxes with and without an entrance tunnel. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section A: Animal Science 44: 38–42Google Scholar
Braastad, B O 1996 Behaviour of silver foxes in traditional breeding boxes and in boxes with an entrance tunnel. Animal Welfare 5: 155–166Google Scholar
Braastad, B O 1998 Effects of prenatal stress on behaviour of offspring of laboratory and farmed animals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 61: 159–180CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braastad, B O and Bakken, M 1993 Maternal infanticide and periparturient behaviour in farmed silver foxes Vulpes vulpes. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 36: 347–361CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braastad, B O, Osadchuk, L V and Bakken, M 1997 Prenatal handling stress affects behaviour in novel situations and the weight and function of adrenals and gonads in blue-fox cubs (Alopex lagopus). In: Hemsworth P H, Spinka M and Kost’ál L (eds) Proceedings of the 31st International Congress of the ISAE (International Society for Applied Ethology), Prague, Czech Republic, 13-16 August p 57. Research Institute of Animal Production: Prague, Czech RepublicGoogle Scholar
Braastad, B O, Osadchuk, L V, Lund, G and Bakken, M 1998 Effects of prenatal handling stress on adrenal weight and function and behaviour in novel situations in blue fox cubs (Alopex lagopus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 57: 157–169Google Scholar
Broom, D M and Johnson, K G 1993 Stress and Animal Welfare. Kluwer: Dordrecht, The NetherlandsCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, R 1979 Carnivores of Europe. BT Batsford: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Cavallini, P 1995 Variation in the body size of the red fox. Annales Zoologici Fennici 32: 421–427Google Scholar
Cavallini, P 1996 Variation in the social system of the red fox. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 8: 323–342CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chesemore, D L 1986 Distributions and movements of foxes in northern and western Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 46: 849–854Google Scholar
Dalsgaard, T I V I S and Pedersen, V 1999 Long-term effects of handling the blue fox during the post-weaning period. Proceedings of the 33rd International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, Lillehammer, Norway 17-21 August. Agricultural University of Norway: Ås, Norway.Google Scholar
Dygalo, N N and Kalinina, T S 1994 Tyrosine hydroxylase activities in the brains of wild Norway rats and silver foxes selected for reduced aggressiveness towards humans. Aggressive Behavior 20: 453–4603.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fabrigoule, C and Maurel, D 1982 Radio-tracking study of foxes’ movements related to their home range: a cognitive map hypothesis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Comparative and Physiological Psychology 34B: 195–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frafjord, K 1989 Interactions between arctic and red foxes in Scandinavia. Predation and agression. Arctic 42: 354–356Google Scholar
Haferbeck, E 1988 PhD thesis, University of Göttingen, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Hargreaves, A L and Hutson, G D 1990 The effect of gentling on heart rate, flight distance and aversion of sheep to a handling procedure. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 26: 243–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harri, M, Ahola, L, Mononen, J and Rekilä, T 1995a Key features of housing design in farm foxes. NJF — Utredning/Rapport No. 106, Subsektion for Pälsdjur Hostmote 4-6 Oktober, Goteborg, Sverige p 13.Google Scholar
Harri, M, Mononen, J, Kasanen, S and Ahola, L 1995b Choice between floor type and floor level in farmed silver foxes. In: Rutter, S M, Rushen, J, Randle, H D and Eddison, J C (eds) Proceedings of the 29th International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, Exeter, UK, 3—5 August pp 171–172. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare: Potters Bar, UKGoogle Scholar
Harri, M, Korhonen, H and Mononen, J 1988 Use of sleeping plates by raccoon dogs and foxes. In: Murphy B D and Hunter D B (eds) Biology, Pathology and Genetics of Fur-Bearing Animals pp 145-152. (Unpublished proceedings of the IV International Congress on Fur Animal Production, Rexdale, Ontario, 21-24 August)Google Scholar
Harri, M, Mononen, J, Haapanen, K and Korhonen, H 1989 Thermal protection provided by year-round nest boxes for farmbred foxes and raccoon dogs. Scientifur 13: 277–286Google Scholar
Harri, M, Mononen, J, Korhonen, H and Haapanen, K 1991 A study of the use of resting platforms by farmbred blue foxes. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 30: 125–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harri, M, Mononen, J, Korhonen, H and Haapanen, K 1992 Whole-year nest boxes and resting platforms for foxes. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Science (Suppl. 9): 512–519Google Scholar
Harri, M, Plyusnina, I, Ahola, L, Mononen, J and Rekilä, T 1997 Accelerated domestication in silver foxes using artificial selection. In: Hemsworth P H, Spinka M and Kost’ál L (eds) Proceedings of the 31st International Congress of the ISAE (International Society for Applied Ethology), Prague, Czech Republic, 13-16 August p 73. Research Institute of Animal Production: Prague, Czech RepublicGoogle Scholar
Heird, J C, Whitaker, D D, Bell, R W, Ramsey, C B and Lokey, CE 1986 The effects of handling at different ages on the subsequent learning ability of 2-year-old horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15: 15–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemmer, H 1983 Domestikation: Verarmung der Merkwelt. Vieweg: Braunschweig, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Hemsworth, P H, Barnett, J L and Hansen, C 1981 The influence of handling by humans on the behaviour, growth and corticosteroids in the juvenile female pig. Hormones and Behaviour 15: 396–403Google ScholarPubMed
Hough, N G 1979 The ranging behaviour of a mature female red fox, Vulpes vulpes. In: Amlaner, C J and Macdonald, D W (eds) A Handbook on Biotelemetry and Radio Tracking pp 691–696. Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK.Google Scholar
Jeppesen, L L and Pedersen, V 1990 Improvement in management routines and cage systems in fox production. Scientifur 14: 237–242Google Scholar
Jeppesen, L L and Pedersen, V 1991 Effects of whole-year nest boxes on Cortisol, circulating leukocytes, exploration and agonistic behavior in silver foxes. Behavioural Processes 25: 171–177Google ScholarPubMed
Jeselnik, D and Brisbin, I 1980 Food-caching behaviour of captive-reared red foxes. Applied Animal Ethology 6: 363–367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaleta, T and Plochocka, D 1990 The escape distance in young farm silver foxes. Scientifur 14: 167–168Google Scholar
Kaleta, T and Stosznajder, R 1990 An attempt to evaluate a relationship between the keeping system and behaviour in young silver foxes. Scientifur 14: 163–166Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Alasuutari, S 1991 Features of social behaviour in an Arctic fox group housed in a large enclosure. Scientifur 15: 201–210Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Alasuutari, S 1992 Hierarchical development in captive Arctic blue fox pack. Scientifur 16: 13–22Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Alasuutari, S 1994 Social relationships and reproductive performance in group-living Arctic blue foxes. Agricultural Science in Finland 3: 49–58Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Alasuutari, S 1995 Dominance relations in captive groups of adult and juvenile Arctic blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Polar Biology 15: 353–358CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1994a Comparison of production results between blue foxes housed with and without platforms. Agricultural Science in Finland 4: 351–361Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1994b Preferences of farmed blue foxes for platforms, nestbox and cage floor. Agricultural Science in Finland 3: 467–472Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1994c Study on factors affecting platform use in blue and silver foxes. In: Kristensen K B and Rasmussen M (eds) 28th International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, Denmark, 3-6 August p 81. Ministry of Agriculture, National Institute of Animal Science: DenmarkGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1996a Comparison between the use of open and walled platforms by juvenile blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Agricultural and Food Science in Finland 5: 177–184CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1996b Effect of environmental and social enrichment on some welfare variables in farm blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Scientifur 20: 26–34Google Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1996c Seasonal changes in platform use by adult farmbred silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Agricultural and Food Science in Finland 5: 3–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1996d Temperament and reproductive success in farmbred silver foxes housed with and without platforms. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics 113: 209–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1997 Choices of farm foxes for raised wire mesh cage and ground pen. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 54: 243–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H, Alasuutari, S, Niemelä, P, Harri, M and Mononen, J 1991 Spatial and circadian activity profiles of farmbred blue foxes housed in different-sized ground floor enclosures. Scientifur 15: 191–200Google Scholar
Korhonen, H, Niemelä, P and Tuuri, H 1996 Seasonal changes in platform use by farmed blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 48: 99–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen, H, Alasuutari, S, Makinen, A and Niemelä, P 1997 Inter and intraspecific competition between the fox species Alopex lagopus and Vulpes vulpes: an evaluation trial under penned conditions. Polar Biology 17: 330–336CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korhonen H Jauhiainen, L and Niemelä, P 1999 Effect of enlarged cage space and access to earthen floor on locomotor and digging activity of blue foxes. Agriculture and Food in Finland 8: 253–263Google Scholar
Kullberg, C and Angerbjörn, A 1992 Social behaviour and cooperative breeding in Arctic foxes, Alopex lagopus (L.), in a semi-natural environment. Ethology 90: 321–335CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, H G 1980a The Red Fox. B T Batsford: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, H G 1980b Habitat requirements of the red fox. In: Zimen, E (ed) The Red Fox: Symposium on Behaviour and Ecology, pp 7–25. B V Publishers: The Hague, The NetherlandsGoogle Scholar
Lucherini, M and Lovari, S 1996 Habitat richness affects home range size in the red fox Vulpes vulpes. Behavioural Processes 36: 103–106Google ScholarPubMed
Lucherini, M, Lovari, S and Crema, G 1995 Habitat use and ranging behaviour of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in a mediterranean rural area: is shelter availability a key factor. Journal of Zoology 237: 577–591CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, D 1979 “Helpers” in fox society. Nature 282: 69–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, D W 1980 Social factors affecting reproduction amongst red foxes. Biogeographical 18: 123–175Google Scholar
Macdonald, D 1987 Running with the Fox. Unwin Hyman: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, D W 1980 Social factors affecting reproduction amongst red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.). In: Zimen, E (ed) The Red Fox: Symposium on Behaviour and Ecology, pp 123–175. B V Publishers: The Hague, The NetherlandsCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malyshenko, N M 1982 The role of corticosteroids in the genesis of fear and aggressive reactions. Zh Vssh Nerva Deyat im IP Pavlova 32: 144–151Google Scholar
Maurel, D 1979 Home ranges and activity rhythm of adult male foxes during the breeding season. In: Amlaner, CJ and Macdonald, DW (eds) A Handbook on Biotelemetry and Radio Tracking pp 699–701. Pergamon Press: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Moe, R O 1996 PhD Thesis. Agricultural University of Norway: Ås, NorwayGoogle Scholar
Moe, R O and Bakken, M 1998 Anxiolytic drugs inhibit hyperthermia induced by handling in farmed silver foxes. Animal Welfare 7: 97–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mononen, J, Harri, M and Rekilä, T 1996a Comparison of preferences of farmed silver and blue foxes for cages with and without a nestbox. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section A: Animal Science 46: 1 ΠI 24Google Scholar
Mononen, J, Harri, M and Rekilä, T 1996b Farmed foxes prefer a cage with an unobstructed view. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 32: 43–48Google Scholar
Mononen, J, Harri, M, Rekilä, T and Ahola, L 1995a Foxes do not like non-transparent walls. NJF — Utredning/Rapport No. 106. NJF-seminarium, Goteborg, Sverige, 4-6 Oktober ρ 38.Google Scholar
Mononen, J, Harri, M, Rekilä, T, Korhonen, H and Niemelä, P 1995b Use of nest boxes by young farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in autumn. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 43: 213–221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mononen, J, Harri, M, Rouvinen, K and Niemelä, P 1993 The use of resting platforms by young silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 38: 301–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newton-Fisher, N, Harris, S, White, P and Jones, G 1993 Structure and function of red fox Vulpes vulpes vocalisations. Bioacoustics 5: 1–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naumenko, E V and Belyaev, D K 1980 Neuro-endocrine mechanisms in animal domestication: problems in animal genetics. Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Genetics, Moscow 2: 12–25Google Scholar
Nimon, A J and Broom, D M 1999 The welfare of farmed mink Mustela vison in relation to housing and management: a review. Animal Welfare 8: 205–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V 1991 Early experience with the farm environment and effects on later behaviour in silver Vulpes vulpes and blue foxes Alopex lagopus. Behavioural Processes 25: 163–169CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V 1992 Handling of silver foxes at different ages pre-weaning and post-weaning and effects on later behaviour and stress-sensitivity. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences (Suppl. 9): 529–535Google Scholar
Pedersen, V 1993a Effects of different post-weaning handling procedures on the later behaviour of silver foxes. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 37: 239–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V 1993b Early experience in silver foxes and effects on later behavioural and physiological parameters. PhD afhandling. Zoologisk Institut, Københavens UniversitetGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V 1994 Long-term effects of different handling procedures on behavioural, physiological, and production-related parameters in silver foxes. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 40: 285–296CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V 1998 Status concerning the welfare of farm foxes. Scientifur 22: 93–98Google Scholar
Pedersen, V and Jeppesen, L L 1990 Effects of early handling on later behaviour and stress responses in the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 26: 383–393CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V and Jeppesen, L L 1993 Daytime use of various types of whole-year shelters in farmed silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 36: 259–273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, V and Jeppesen, L L 1998 Different cage sizes and effects on behaviour and physiology in farmed silver and blue foxes. Scientifur 22: 13–22Google Scholar
Perry, R 1973 Polar Worlds. David and Charles: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Plyusnina, I, Oskina, I and Trut, L 1991 An analysis of fear and aggression during early development of behaviour in silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 32: 253–268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podberscek, A L, Blackshaw, J K and Beattie, A W 1991 The effects of repeated handling by familiar and unfamiliar people on rabbits in individual cages and group pens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 28: 365–373CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popova, N K, Voitenko, N N, Kulikov, A V and Avgustinovich, D F 1991 Evidence for the involvement of central serotonin in mechanism of domestication in silver foxes. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 4: 751 -756Google Scholar
Price, E O 1997 Behavioural aspects of domestication and feralisation. In: Hemsworth P H, Spinka M and Kost’ál L (eds) Proceedings of the 31st International Congress of the ISAE (International Society for Applied Ethology), Prague, Czech Republic, 13-16 August ρ 9. Research Institute of Animal Production: Prague, Czech RepublicGoogle Scholar
Rekilä, T, Mononen, J and Harri, M 1994 Effect of cage environment on temperament and general activity in blue fox (Alopex lagopus). In: Kristensen K B and Rasmussen M (eds) 28th International Congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology, Denmark, 3-6 August p 85. Ministry of Agriculture, National Institute of Animal Science: Denmark.Google Scholar
Rekilä, T, Mononen, J and Harri, M 1996 Effect of inside-cage and outside-cage environment on behaviour test-performance of blue foxes (Alopex lagopus). Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section A: Animal Science 46: 247–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sargeant, A B 1972 Red fox spatial characteristics in relation to waterfowl predation. Journal of Wildlife Management 36: 225–236Google Scholar
Scholander, P F, Hock, R, Walters, V and Irving, L 1950 Adaptation to cold in Arctic and tropical mammals and birds in relation to body temperature, insulation and basal metabolic rate. Biological Bulletin 99: 259–271CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skovgaard K Pedersen, V and Jeppesen, L L 1998 The preference for different types of floor in silver foxes and blue foxes. Scientifur 22: 99–106Google Scholar
Storm, G L 1965 Movements and activities of foxes as determined by radio-tracking. Journal of Wildlife Management 29: 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tembrock, G 1957 Das Verhalten das Rotfuches. In: Helmcke, J-G, Lenegerken, H V and Starck, D (eds) Handbuch der Zoologie 10 (15) pp 1–20. Watter de Gruyter & Co: Berlin, GermanyGoogle Scholar
Tennessen, T 1988 Effect of early handling on open-field behaviour and fear of humans in young silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes). In: Unshelm J, Van Putten G, Zeeb K and Ekesbo I (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Skara, Sweden pp 392–394Google Scholar
Trut, L N 1981 The genetics and phenogenetics of domestic behaviour. Proceedings of the 14’h International Congress on Genetics, Moscow 2: 123–137Google Scholar
Trut, L N 1995 Domestication of the fox: roots and effects. Scientifur 19: 11–18Google Scholar
Trut, L N and Oskina, I N 1985 Age changes of corticosteroid levels in blood of foxes with different behaviour. Doklady Akademia Nauk SSSR 281: 1010–1014Google Scholar
Weber, D 1985 Zur Baubenutzung und ihrer Funktion beim Fuchs (Vulpes vulpes L.). Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 50: 356–368Google Scholar
Wiepkema, P R 1994 Advice regarding the husbandry of fur animals — mink and foxes — in The Netherlands. Report to the Dutch Government (Unpublished)Google Scholar
Yang, F, O'Brien, PCM, Milne, B S, Graphodatsky, A S, Solanky, N, Trifonov, V, Rens, W, Sargan, D and Ferguson-Smith, M A 1999 A complete comparative chromosome map for the dog, red fox and human and its integration with canine genetic maps. Genomics 62: 189–202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed