¹ The United States Committee for Eefugees has estimated that there were over 15,000,000 refugees in the world on June 30, 1961. Hearing on World Refugee Problems by the Senate Judiciary Committee, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., at 62–63 (1961). The establishment of the “ w a l l “ between East and West Berlin in August, 1961, terminated the massive flight of refugees from West Germany which amounted to nearly 4,000,000 people since 1945. German Information Center (New York), Berlin, Crisis and Challenge 27-29 (c. 1962).

² There is an extensive literature dealing with various aspects of the practice of political asylum, most of it representing the work of European and Latin American publicists. The following are useful studies: Alcindor, “Droit d’Asile,” in 2 De Lapradelle and Niboyet (eds.), Repertoire de Droit International 32–64 (1929); Bolesta–Koziebrodzki, Le Droit d’Asile (1962); Cabral de Moncada, O Asilo Interno em Direito Intemacional Publico (1946) ; Garcia Mora, International Law and Asylum as a Human Right (1956) ; Timbal Duclaux de Martin, Le Droit d’Asile (1939).

³ TJ.N. General Assembly, 3d Sess., Official Records, I, Resolutions, at 71–77 (1948); 43 A.J.I.L. Supp. 127 (1949).

⁴ E.g., Art. 129, Constitution of the U.S.S.B., 1936; Art. 31, Constitution of Costa Kica, 1949; Art. 16(2), Basic Law, Federal Eepublic of West Germany, 1949, in 3 Peaslee (ed.), Constitutions of Nations 499 (2d ed., 1956), 1 ibid. 579, 2 ibid. 33. The grant of political asylum is not automatic because of the existence of a constitutional provision dealing therewith, e.g., case of the grant of asylum to Major Mortazawi of the Iranian Army, Izvestia, Sept. 16, 1961, reported in 13 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 24 (No. 37, Oct. 11, 1961). See also Art. 15, Constitution of Mexico, 1917; Art. 141(33), Constitution of Brazil, 1946, in 2 Peaslee 664; 1 ibid. 236; 18 XJ.S.C, sec. 3185; 8 U.S.C., sec. 1182(a) (9) (10); Chile, Ley No. 13.353/1959, C6digo Penal 427 (official ed., 1959); Germany, Extradition Law, Dec. 23, 1929, in Harvard Research in International Law, Draft Convention and Comments on Extradition, 29 A.J.I.L. Supp. 385 (1935).

⁵ Chandler v. United States, 171 P. 2d 921, 935 (1st Cir., 1948), 43 A.J.I.L. 804 (1949). Extradition treaties often provide in terms that the decision regarding the grant of asylum is to be made only by the asylum state. For a recently drafted text, see Art. V, sec. 6(c), U. S.–Brazil, Extradition Treaty, Jan. 13, 1961, 44 Dept. of State Bulletin 164, 166 (1961). This treaty was ratified by the United States on May 29, 1961, but was not in force as of November, 1962.

⁶ Fernándes, Do Asilo Diplomático 103 (1961).

⁷ P.L. 85–559, 72 Stat. 419; New York Times, Nov. 13, 1956, p. 21, col. 1 (late city ed. The city ed. of the New York Times is used unless otherwise indicated).

⁸ I.C.J. General List, 1949, No. 7, at 5; New York Times, Sept. 21, 1955, p. 1, col. 8.

⁹ Ibid., March 5, 1962, p. 17, col. 3.

¹⁰ Commonwealth of Australia, Royal Commission on Espionage, Report, Aug. 22, 1955 (1955).

¹¹ l Hyde, International Law 729–731 (2d rev. ed., 1947), 2 ibid. 871 ff.; 3 Hackworth, Digest of International Law 562–565 (1940–1944).

¹² Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Scope of Soviet Activities in the United States of the Senate Judiciary Committee, 84th Cong., 2d Sess., Pt. 33, at 1792–1795, 1856 (1956), Pt. 24, at 1256 (1956), Pt. 19, at 1000 (1956); II. S. Senate, Report on the Inquiry into the Tuapse Affair, 84th Cong., 2d Sess. (1956).

¹³ The Argentine Supreme Court, for example, has pointed out “ t h a t the status of refugee cannot confer greater rights on an individual than those enjoyed by the citizen of the state of asylum seems too elementary for discussion.” Re Martinez Vasquez, July 14, 1955, 232 Eallos de la Corte Suprema 247, 1955 Int. Law Rep. 474.

¹⁴ 1 Guggenheim, Traite de Droit International 356, note 4 (1953–1954); New York Times, May 16, 1962, p. 15, col. 1.

¹⁵ For a brief account of the conflict between law enforcement and problems of policy,see Evans, “Observations on the Practice of Territorial Asylum in the United States,” 56 A.J.I.L. 148, 155–157 (1962). On the obligations of refugees toward the asylum state, see Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, July 28, 1951, Art. 2, 189 U.N. Treaty Series 150.

¹⁶ See Hague Convention V on Rights and Duties of Neutrals in War on Land, Oct. 18, 1907, Ch. I I , Art. XI, 36 Stat. 2310, 2324, 2 A.J.I.L. Supp. 117, 120 (1908), and Ex parte Toscano, 208 Fed. 938 (S.D.Calif., 1913) ; Montevideo Convention on International Penal Law, 1889, Art. 16, in Republic of Uruguay, Anexo a la Memoria del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Actas y Tratados Celebrados por el Congreso Internacional Sud–Americano de Montevideo 936 (1889); Marineros de “ L a Pilcomaya,” Supreme Court, April 23, 1891, 43 Fallos de la Corte Suprema 321, 327–329 (Argentina) ; Re Berreta, Supreme Court, Nov. 8, 1933, 169 Hid. 255, 1933–1934 Annual Digest 259 at 260–261. Cf. Peru–Brazil, Treaty of Asylum and Extradition, Aug. 6, 1898, Art. 2, Republic of Peru, Memoria del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 1899, p. 240. At the request of Argentina, the Government of Paraguay, after granting territorial asylum to Juan Peron, interned him at a point 75 miles from the border of Argentina. New York Times, Oct. 11, 1955, p. 1, col. 7; Oct. 13, 1955, p. 1, col. 4. Cf. [European] Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, Art. 16, 213 U.N. Treaty Series 221; 45 A.J.I.L. Supp. 24, 29 (1951).

¹⁷ Baxter, “Asylum to Prisoners of War,” 30 Brit. Yr. Bk. of Int. Law 489–498 (1953); Gutteridge, “The Repatriation of Prisoners of War,” 2 Int. and Comp. Law Q. 207–216 (1953).

¹⁸ 8 U.S.C., sec. 1182(d)(5); the distinction between “excludee” and “deportee” is treated in U. S. ex rel. Milanovic v. Murff, 253 F. 2d 941 (2d Cir., 1958). See Petition of Martinez, 202 F. Supp. 153 (N.D.IU., 1962), in which the physical presence of an alien in the United States on parole status was deemed “presence” for the purpose of naturalization through military service. Cf. Medina v. Hartman, 260 F. 2d 569 (9th Cir., 1958), in which certain Spanish sailors who deserted a Spanish naval vessel while on shore leave at San Diego, Calif., and fled to Mexico, were deemed not to have “ e n t e r e d “ the United States so as to be liable to exclusion as deserters. Expulsion may be distinguished from deportation by limiting the latter to the enforcement of immigration laws, e.g., 2 Hyde, International Law 235; however, given the scope of governmental control over aliens which can be exercised under the terms of contemporary immigration laws, the distinction is not significant.

¹⁹ Ealston, Venezuelan Arbitrations of 1903, p. 696.

²⁰ Brownell v. Tom We Sluing, 352 U. S. 180 (1956).

²¹ U. S. ex rel. Tom We Shung v. Murff, 176 F. Supp. 253, 259 (S.D.N.Y., 1959). Of., however, the late Judge Frank's strictures in U. S. ex rel. Fong Poo v. Shaughnessy, 234 F. 2d 715 (2d Cir., 1955).

²² Sec. 243(h), 66 Stat. 163, 214; 8 U.S.C., sec. 1253(h). The constitutionality of this section was questioned by Frank, J., in the case of Fong Foo, cited above, note 21.

²³ Lavdas v. Holland, 139 F. Supp. 514 (E.D.Pa., 1955), concerning sec. 4 of the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, 50 TJ.S.C.A. App., sec. 1953; Sunjka v. Esperdy, 182 F. Supp. 599 (S.D.N.Y., 1960); Petrovic v. Pilliod, 282 F. 2d 877 (7th Cir., 1960); Blazina v. Bouchard, 286 F. 2d 507 (3d Cir., 1961); Chao–ling Wang v. Pilliod, 285 F. 2d 517 (7th Cir., 1960). In the Blazina case the court noted that “ A t worst, it appears that he will be ‘looked down upon’ and will encounter some ‘complications',” 286 F. 2d at 511. Cf. the case of Wang Chou–kang, a Nationalist Chinese naval officer, who was expelled from the United States and successfully sought asylum in the United Kingdom rather than return to Taiwan. New York Times, July 27, 1961, p. 3, col. 4; Aug. 10, 1961, p. 17, col. 7; Nov. 21, 1961, p. 20, col. 3 (late city ed.); 645 H.C. Deb. (5th ser.) 428–429 (1961).

²⁴ Matter of Kale, Immigration and Naturalization Service Administrative Decision A 9–555–532 (May, 1958), quoted in Diminich v. Esperdy, 299 F. 2d 244, 246 (2d Cir., 1961).

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ 297 F. 2d 744 (3d Cir., 1961).

²⁷ In the Dunat case the court summarized seven recent cases in which inadequate evidence of physical persecution was submitted by would–be refugees, ibid., note 3, at 748.

²⁸ 351 U. S. 345, 354 (1956). Cf. Cheng Fu Sheng v. Barber, 269 F. 2d 497 (D.C.Cir., 1959) for a discussion of the distinction between “fear of persecution” as used in sec. 6 of the Eefugee Belief Act of 1953, 67 Stat. 403, and sec. 243 (h) of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. See Milutin v. Bouchard, 299 F. 2d 50 (3d Cir., 1962).

²⁹ Chi Sheng Liu v. Holton, 297 F . 2d 740 (9th Cir., 1961); Chao–ling Wang v. Pilliod and Blazina v. Bouchard, note 23 above.

³⁰ Namkung v. Boyd, 226 F. 2d 385, 389 (9th Cir., 1955); Granado Almeida v. Murff, 159 F. Supp. 484 (S.D.N.Y., 1958); U. S. ex rel. Dolenz v. Shaughnessy, 200 oF. 2d 288 (2d Cir., 1952), cert, denied, 345 TJ. S. 928 (1953).

³¹ Chicago & Southern Air Lines, Inc. v. Waterman Steamship Corp., 333 TJ. S. 103, 111 (1948); U. S. ex rel. Cantisani v. Holton, 248 F. 2d 737 (7th Cir., 1957). Cf. Ex parte Duke of Chateau Thierry, [1917] 1 K.B. 922; Abdou v. Att'y Gen. of Kenya, High Court, April 24, 1951, [1951] 24(2) K.L.R. 13 (Kenya), 1951 Int. Law Rep. 282. The jurisprudence of the Mexican Supreme Court confirms the exclusive power of the President, acting under Art. 33 of the Constitution, to expel undesirable aliens without resort to judicial proceedings and without the possibility of judicial intervention. 97 Semanario Judicial de la Federaci6n, 5” Epoca, Jurisprudencia de la Suprema Corte, 1917–1948, apendice, Vols. 2–3, p. 904.

³² The Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, criticizing the decisions in the Dolenz and Granado Almeida cases (note 30 above) among others, stated: “We do not believe that section 243(h) is to be read in such a loose and unrestrictive fashion. Physical persecution involves a grave challenge to those personal rights so fundamental to our constitutional scheme; if the likelihood of this challenge rested entirely in executive hands, it is conceivable that those rights would be violated without due process of law.” Chi Sheng Liu v. Holton, note 29 above, at 741. See dissenting opinion of Staley, J., in the Milutin case, note 28 above, p. 54. Cf. Ex parte Sacksteder, [1918] 1 K.B. 578; Re Morphy, Conseil d ‘Etat, March 14, 1884, Dalloz, 1885, Pt. 3, at 9.

³³ 2 Peaslee, Constitutions of Nations 33; 189 TJ.N. Treaty Series 150; [1951] Bundesgesetzblatt, I, 269, sec. 23 (German Fed. Eep.).

³⁴ Yugoslav Eefugee (Germany) Case, June 28, 1956, 10 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift (hereinafter cited as N.J.W.) 762; 1956 Int. Law Bep. 386; French Eefugee (Germany) Case, Jan. 17, 1957, BVerwG I C, 65/56, 54 A.J.I.L. 424 (1960); Hungarian Eefugee (Germany) Case, Sept. 30, 1958, BVerwG I C, 172/57 (Munich), 54 A.J.I.L. 419 (1960).

³⁵ Ley 14.445/1958, Jurisprudencia Argentina, 1958, I I I , sec. leg. 16.

³⁶ Ee Viscussi, Supreme Court, Dec. 28, 1907, 108 Fallos de la Corte Suprema 181 at 203 (Argentina); Chandler v. V. S., note 5 above; The State (Duggan) v. Tapley, Supreme Court, Dec. 12, 1950, [1952] Irish Eep. 62, 1951 Int. Law Rep. 336.

³⁷ See decisions of the Swiss Federal Tribunal in Ee Wyrobnik, Sept. 24, 1952, 78 Arrets du Tribunal Federal Suisse (hereinafter cited as Trib. Fed. Suisse) (1952), I, 235, 1952 Int. Law Eep. 379; Ee Ktir, May 17, 1961, 87 Entscheidungen des Schweizorischen Bundesgerichts (hereinafter cited as S.B.G.), I, 134, 56 A.J.I.L, 224 (1962).

³⁸ Traits de Droit Criminel et de Legislation Penale Comparee 985 (3d ed., 1947). Gf. French Refugee (Germany) Case, J a n . 11, 1961, 14 N.J.W. 738 (German Fed. Rep.), 56 A . J . I . L . 221 at 222–223 ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; Yugoslav Refugee (Germany) Case, Feb. 4, 1959, 1 BvR 193/57, 54 A . J . I . L . 416 at 418–419 (1960).

³⁹ Re Van Lierde, Supreme Court, June 16, 1954, 229 Fallos de la Corte Suprema 124 (Argentina), 1954 Int. Law Rep. 238 at 239; Re Mylonas, 187 F. Supp. 716, 721 (N.D. Ala., 1960). In the Colombian–Peruvian Asylum Case concerning the termination of diplomatic asylum, the International Court of Justice dismissed the Peruvian counterclaim that Haya de la Torre was a common criminal on the ground that Peru had failed to prove that military rebellion was a common crime. [1950] I.C.J. Rep. at 281–282. Ex parte Stenger, Court of Cassation, Sept. 3, 1951, Foro Italiano 1952, I I , 1 (Italy), 1951 Int. Law Rep. 325 at 329–330; Re D ‘Emilia, Supreme Court, May 28, 1957, 54 Revista de Derecho, Jurisprudencia y Ciencias Sociales y Gaceta de los Tribunales Nos. 3–4 (May–June, 1957) 72 (Chile), [1957] Int. Law Rep. 499, at 501.

⁴⁰ Muller v. Supt., Presidency Jail, Calcutta, [1955] Sup. Ct. Rep. 324 (India), 1955 Int. Law Rep. 497 at 500; Re Esposito, Fed. Sup. Ct., July 25, 1932, 111 Revista de Direito 73 (Brazil), 1933–1934 Annual Digest 332.

⁴¹ E.g., Re Timmerman, Supreme Court, Oct. 17, 1944, Gaceta de los Tribunales, Ano 1944, Pt. 2, 163 (Chile).

⁴² U. S. v. Soblen, 199 F. Supp. 11 (S.D.N.Y., 1961), motion for new trial denied, 203 F. Supp. 542 (S.D.N.Y., 1961), aff'd. 301 F.2d 236 (2d Cir., 1962), cert, denied, 370 TJ. S. 944 (1962). By his action, Soblen forfeited his bail of $100,000. The Law of Return, as amended, provides for the denial of an immigrant's visa “ t o a person with a criminal past, likely to endanger public welfare.” Badi (ed.), Fundamental Laws of the State of Israel 156, 332 (1961); 5 The Israel Digest 8 (July 6, 1962) ; 8 (Aug. 3, 1962) ; 8 (Aug. 17, 1962) ; New York Times, Nov. 10, 1962, p. 26, col. 3.

⁴³ New York Times, July 2, 1962, p. 16, col. 3 ; Aliens Order, 1953, Stat. Instr. 1953, No. 1671, Arts. 1(1), 8 ( 4 ) ; New York Times, July 7, 1962, p. 1, col. 8; July 9, 1962, p. 7, col. 2; Regina v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs, Ex parte Soblen (Q. B. Div., C.A.), [1962] 3 W.L.R. 1145; 664 H. C. Deb. (5th ser.) 805–806 (1962).

⁴⁴ New York Times, July 26, 1962, p. 8, col. 3; July 30, 1962, p. 1, col. 3; Aug. 5, 1962, p. 22, col. 1; Aug. 6, 1962, p. 5, col. 3. Art. 8 of the AliensOrder, 1953 (note 43 above), requires the removal of an excluded alien on the ship or plane which brought him into the country to the state of origin, the state of embarkation, or to a state where he will be admitted.

⁴⁵ New York Times, Aug. 7, p. 1, col. 4; Aug. 8, p. 15, col. 1; The Times (London), Aug. 11, 1962, p. 6, col. 4; Aliens Order, 1953, Art. 20(2) (b) and Art. 21(1), note 43 above. Cf. Ex parte Sugarman, (1922) 127 L.T. 27; New York Times, Aug. 12, 1962, p. 1, col. 5.

⁴⁶ Eegina v. Governor of Brixton Prison ex parte Soblen, [1962] 3 W.L.R. 1154, 1181 (Court of Appeal). The deportation order then issued, followed by Soblen's death within the week. The Times (London), Sept. 6, 1962, p. 10, col. 2; Sept. 12, 1962, p. 8, col. 6.

⁴⁷ Yugoslav Befugee (Germany) Case, loc. cit. note 38 above, at 418.

⁴⁸ U. S. v. Sobell, 142 F. Supp. 515, 520 (S.D.N.Y., 1956); Re Timmerman, note 41 above.

⁴⁹ Soon after Vladimir Petrov asked for asylum in Australia, the Soviet Government requested his surrender on charges of embezzlement, but it made no effort to offer proof of these charges. Royal Commission on Espionage, Report 24, note 10 above. In a newspaper report of the request for asylum in Cuba made by a deserter from the II. S. Army, American military authorities were quoted as saying that he was under investigation for “passing bogus checks and for forgery.” New York Times, March 25, 1962, p. 39, col. 1.

⁵⁰ Granados, La Extradici6n de los Kefugiados Espafioles 43 (1946).

⁵¹ Re Castioni, [1891] 1 Q.B. 149, 159; Re Ezeta, 62 Fed. 972, 999 (N.D.Calif., 1894); cf. Ornelas v. Ruiz, 161 U. S. 502, 511–512 (1896). See Beauchet, Traitt de l'Extradition 207 ff. (1899). Alcindor distinguished three periods in the history of political asylum: pre–1830, when the political fugitive was fair game for extradition; 1830–1856, when there was a general acceptance of political asylum; and post–1856, which marked the beginning of the restrictive view following an attempt upon the life of Napoleon I I I , which led Belgium to adopt a law excluding this offense from the political category. Repertoire de Droit International 53–55, note 2 above. See Harvard Research in International Law, Draft Convention and Comments on Extradition 114–115, and treaties cited therein, note 4 above. The Department of State, in a memorandum to the Supreme Court in Karadzole v. Artukovic, stated that it was “ … of the view that the offense of murder, even though committed solely or predominantly with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, is none the less 'murder’ within the meaning of the Extradition Treaty [between the United States and Yugoslavia] here involved, and is not thereby rendered an offense of a ‘political character' within the meaning of Article VI of the above–mentioned treaty.” Memorandum for the United States, Record, p. 8, 355 U. S. 393 (1958). The Supreme Court of Palestine stated the matter simply: “We know of nothing in the criminal law of this country or of England that creates a special offence called political murder.” Yousef Said Abu Dourrah v. Att'y. Gen., Jan. 20, 1941, 8 Law Rep. Palestine (1941) 43, 1941– 1942 Annual Digest 331 at 332.

⁵² [1894] 2 Q.B. 415, 419.

⁵³ The Swiss Federal Tribunal has opposed the extradition of anarchists, Harvard Research in International Law, loo. cit. note 4 above, at 117. The provision regarding anarchism continues to be found in extradition treaties, e.g., TJ. S.–Brazil, Extradition Treaty, Jan. 13, 1961, Art. V(6)(b), note 5 above.

⁵⁴ Re Pavelic and Kwaternik, Court of Appeals of Turin, Nov. 23, 1934, Bivista Penale, 1934, p. 1383 (Italy), 1933–1934 Annual Digest 372; League of Nations, Proceedings of the International Conference on the Eepression of Terrorism, Nov. 1–16, 1937 (1938). Cf. Ee Kaphengst, Fed. Trib., Oct. 17, 1930, 56 S.B.G., I, p. 457 (Switzerland), 1929–1930 Annual Digest 292 at 293; Torres Gigena, Asilo Diplomatico, Su Pratica y Teoria 141–143 (1960).

⁵⁵ Lauterpacht, “The Law of Nations and the Punishment of War Crimes,” 21 Brit. Yr. Bk. of Int. Law (1944) 58; Schwelb, “The United Nations War Crimes Commission,” 23 ibid. (1946) 363; 2 Oppenheim–Lauterpacht, International Law 588, 589 (7th ed., 1952); Pella, “Draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind,” 1950 I.L.C. Yearbook (II) 278; Carjeu, “Quelques Aspects du Nouveau Projet de Statut des Nations Unies pour une Juridiction Criminelle Internationale,'' 60 Revue G6nerale de Droit International Public 401 (1956) ; see U.N. Committee on International Criminal Jurisdiction, Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court, U.N. Doc. A/AC.48/4, Sept. 5, 1951, 46 A.J.I.L. Supp. 1 (1952).

⁵⁶ U.N. General Assembly, 2d Sess., Official Records, Vol. I, p. 481. See Resolutions of Feb. 16, 1946, and Oct, 31, 1947, 1946–1947 U.N. Yearbook 66; 1947–1948 ibid. 222.

⁵⁷ Denmark (Collaboration with the Enemy) Case, May 21, 1947, 4 Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional 128 (Jan.–June, 1948), 1947 Annual Digest 146–147. See also the following decisions of the Federal Supreme Court of Brazil: Ee Kahrs, May 12, 1948, 87 Archivo Judiciario (July–Sept., 1948), 1948 Annual Digest 301; Ee De Bernonville, Sept. 28, 1955, 117 Archivo Judiciario 246 (Jan.–March, 1956), 1955 Int. Law Eep. 527.

⁵⁸ Re Eosemberg and Cruz Wer, 1954, discussed by Bovira Pleitez, El Asilo Diplomatico y Territorial en America 75 ff. (1956).

⁵⁹ Karadzole v. Artukovic, 170 F. Supp. 383 (S.D.Calif., 1959), on remand from the Supreme Court, 355 U. S. 393 (1958). Cf. Extradition of Greek National (Germany) Case, Fed. Sup. Ct., July 12, 1955, 8 N.J.W. (1955) 1365 (German Fed. Eep.), 1955 Int. Law Eep. 520. More recently a Czech request to Argentina for the extradition of a fugitive on charges of war crimes was denied on grounds that the Argentine statute of limitations had run on offenses committed in 1944–1945, Ee Durcansky, July 18, 1960, Juzgado Nacional de Primera Instancia en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal, Jurisprudencia Argentina, 1960, IV (July–Aug., 1960), pp. 542, 543. The Soviet Union requested the extradition of Karl Linnas from the United States in October, 1961, on charges of the commission of war crimes in Estonia in 1944. Considering the decision in the Artukovic case, together with the views expressed “by the American Government in 1946, on the matter of extraditing war criminals, and the absence of an extradition treaty, there seems little likelihood that the request will be granted. New York Times, Oct. 13, 1961, p. 9, col. 1; 13 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 27 (No. 41, Nov. 8, 1961).

⁶⁰ Note 55 above, pp. 301–302.

⁶¹ Art. VII, 78 U.N. Treaty Series 277, 282; 75 ibid. 31, 85, 135, 287.

⁶² Art. 3, U. S.–Liberia, Extradition Treaty, Nov. 1, 1937, 201 L. N. Treaty Series 156; Art. 3(1), U. K.–Saudi Arabia, Agreement for the Extradition of Offenders, April 20, 1942, 10 U.N. Treaty Series 99.

⁶³ Art. V(4), U. S.–Brazil, Extradition Treaty, Jan. 13, 1961, note 5 above.

⁶⁴ Art. 6, Netherlands–Italy, Convention for the Extradition of Criminals, May 28, 1897, revived by exchange of notes, 98 U.N. Treaty Series 84;Art. 3(1), Denmark– Czechoslovakia, Treaty of Extradition and Judicial Assistance in Criminal Matters, Oct. 7, 1931, 127 L. N. Treaty Series 107; Art. V ( 6 ) ( b ) , U. S.–Brazil, Extradition Treaty, Jan. 13, 1961, note 5 above; Art. 6(b), Iraq–Jordan, Treaty of Brotherhood and Alliance, April 14, 1947, 23 U.N. Treaty Series 147; Art. 4(3), Iraq–Turkey, Extradition Convention, March 29, 1946, 37 ibid. 369; Art. 3(2), U. K.–Saudi Arabia, Agreement for the Extradition of Offenders, April 20, 1942, note 62 above. See Harvard Eesearch in International Law, loc. cit. note 4 above, pp. 114–118.

⁶⁵ 8 U.S.C., sec. 1182(a) (9) (10).

⁶⁶ 18 U.S.C., sec. 3185; 33 and 34 Vict., Ch. 25, Art. 3. For other extradition laws, see Harvard Research in International Law, loc. cit. note 4 above.

⁶⁷ Be Campora, Sept. 24, 1957, 54 Revista de Derecho, Jurisprudencia, Ciencias Sociales y Gaceta de los Tribunales, Nos. 7–8 (Sept.–Oct., 1957), Pt. 2, sec. 4, at 197; 1957 Int. Law Eep. 518, at 519–521; 53 A.J.I.L. 693 (1959).

⁶⁸ New York Times, March 19, 1957, p. 1; March 20, 1957, p. 21, col. 3; Sept. 27, 1957, p. 7, col. 1; Oct. 4, 1957, p. 2, col. 6.

⁶⁹ E.g., 18 U.S.C., sees. 792–794, sees. 2152–2156, sees. 2381–2382, sees. 2383–2385; Argentina, Codigo Penal (1961 ed.), Tit. XI, Art. 244; Australia, Commonwealth Crimes Act, 1914–1960, sec. 24 AA, 1960 Cumulative Supp. to the Acts of the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1901–1950 (1961) ; U.S.S.B., Law on Criminal Liability for State Crimes, Dec. 25, 1958, Art. 1, 11 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 3 (No. 5,. March 11, 1959).

⁷⁰ Stephen, A General View of the Criminal Law of England 85, 89 (2d ed., 1890) ; Billot, Traite de 1′Extradition 104 (1874). For a concise discussion of the classification of political offenses, see 1 Oppenheim–Lauterpacht, International Law 707 ff. (8th ed., 1955).

⁷¹ Argentina, C6digo Penal (1961 ed.), Tit. IX, X; Ee Schneider, July 18, 1945, Camara Federal de la Capital, Jurisprudencia Argentina, 1945, IV, p. 30; Art. 145, Tit. I I , Ch. I, of the Penal Code for the Federal District of Mexico does not define political offenses as such, but lists as examples rebellion and sedition.

⁷² E.g., Denmark (Collaboration with the Enemy) Case, Supreme Court, May 21, 1947 (Brazil), note 57 above; Ee Pavelic and Kwaternik, Court of Appeals of Turin, Nov. 23, 1934 (Italy), note 54 above; Asilo Diplomatico, Su Pratica y Teoria 141, note 54 above; Ee Bustos Nunez, Supreme Court, March 28, 1958, Jurisprudencia Argentina, 1958, II, p. 401 (Argentina); Pritchett, “The Political Offender and the Warren Court,” 38 Boston University Law Eev. 53, 65 (1958). The Supreme Court of Guatemala stated in 1929 that “Universal law qualifies as political crimes sedition, rebellion and other offences which tend to change the form of Government or the persons who compose it… . “ Ee Eckermann, May 28, 1929, 26 Gaceta de los Tribunales (n. 35) 992, 1929–1930 Annual Digest 293.

⁷³ Art. 3 of the Extradition Treaty between Mexico and Panama of Oct. 23, 1928, provides that “The State to which application is made shall decide whether the offence for which the extradition of an accused person is applied for is of a political character in accordance with whichever law is the more favourable to the fugitive.” 194 L. N. Treaty Series 143. The issuance of amnesty by the requesting state to certain political elements, while ignoring the group to which a political fugitive belongs, has been regarded as prima facie evidence of the political character of the offense charged, Ee Eagni, Fed. Trib., July 14, 1923, 49 S.B.G., I, p. 266 (Switzerland), 1923–1924 Annual Digest 286.

⁷⁴ Re Castioni, note 51 above; see also Eegina v. Governor of Brixton Prison ex parte Schtraks, [1962] 3 W.L.E. 1013, at 1033; Ee Pavan, Fed. Trib., June 15, 1928, 54 S.B.G. I, p. 207 (Switzerland), 1927–1928 Annual Digest 347; Ee Banegas, Supreme Court, June 30, 1948, 88 Archivo Judiciario 34 (Oct.–Dec, 1948) (Brazil), 1948 Annual Digest 300; Ee Campora, note 67 above.

⁷⁵ Re Mariaca Pando, Supreme Court, Feb. 26, 1926, 145 Fallos de la Corte Suprema 394 (Argentina), 1925–1926 Annual Digest 310; Ee Fabijan, Supreme Court, March 9, 1933, 67 Entscheidungen des Beichsgerichts in Strafsachen 150 (Germany), 1933– 1934 Annual Digest 360; Ee Gatti, Court of Appeals of Grenoble, Jan. 13, 1947, Sirey, 1947, I I , p. 48 (France), 1947 Annual Digest 145; Ee Ficorilli, Fed. Trib., Feb. 14, 1951, 77 Trib. Fed. Suisse (1951), I, pp. 57–65, 1951 Int. Law Eep. 345.

⁷⁶ Re Pavan, note 74 above; Ee Kaphengst, note 54 above; Ee Peyre, Camara Nacional Especial, Dec. 20, 1955, 81 Eevista Argentina Juridica La Ley 648 (Jan.–March, 1956), 1955 Int. Law Eep. 525.

⁷⁷ Re Kavic, Bjelanovie and Arsenijevic, Fed. Trib., April 30, 1952, 78 Trib. Fed. Suisse (1952), I, p. 39, 1952 Int. Law Eep. 371; see Guggenheim's note on this case in 10 Annuaire Suisse de Droit International 218 (1953); Ex parte Kolczynski, [1955] 1 Q.B. 540; 1954 Int. Law Eep. 240; 49 A.J.I.L. 411 (1955); Ee Ktir, note 37 above. The U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, in one of the few published decisions in which the political offense is discussed, adhered to the strict view: “ … in order for an offense to constitute a political one, there must be concerted action for a political purpose.” In the Matter of K—(Family), A–7421321,2,&3, Aug. 16, 1950, 4 Administrative Decisions under Immigration & Nationality Laws 108, 118 (Feb. 1950–Jan.1953).

⁷⁸ E.g., Ee Camporini, Fed. Trib., Sept. 19, 1924, 50 S.B.G. I, p. 299 (Switzerland), 1923–1924 Annual Digest 283; Ee Ficorilli, note 75 above; Ee Kavic, note 77 above; Ee Campora, note 67 above; Ee Fabijan, note 75 above; French Eefugee (Germany) Case, note 34 above; Eamos v. Diaz, 179 F. Supp. 459 (S.D.Fla., 1959). See 1 Moore A Treatise on Extradition and Interstate Eendition 308 (1891).

⁷⁹ Bamos v. Diaz, note 78 above; Ee Kavic, note 77 above. In Eosemberg and Cruz Wer, the District Court for the Federal District of Mexico denied extradition for homicide on the grounds that this act had as its objective the suppression of ideological or de facto opposition to the incumbent regime in Guatemala. Eovira Pleitez, note 58 above.

⁸⁰ 1952 Int. Law Eep. 373–374.

⁸¹ The Swiss Federal Tribunal, noting that the seizure of hostages was an extreme measure in wartime, held that it could not be justified as a political offense in a peace time situation. Ee Vogt, Jan. 26, 1924, 50 8.B.G., I, p. 249, 1923–1924 Annual Digest 285; cf. Ee Eckermann, note 72 above. The French O.A.S. justified its course of murder and pillage in Algeria in the name of patriotism. See New York Times, March 21, 1962, ]). 1, col. 5.

⁸² [1955] 1 Q.B. 547, 549.

⁸³ Balzac, quoted by Pella, note 55 above, p. 290

⁸⁴ E.g., Ee Van Lierde, note 39 above.

⁸⁵ Contrast the view expressed in Ee Arton, [1896] 1 Q.B. 108, 115, that a court in an asylum state cannot question the good faith of the requesting state, with the position of the West German Federal Supreme Court in French Refugee (Germany) Case, note 38 above, that the court has a duty to examine closely the possible political nature of the charges against the accused.

⁸⁶ N o t e 51 above, p . 9.

⁸⁷ Karadzole v. Artukovic, 170 F . Supp. 383 (S.D.Calif., 1959). The Supreme Court decision turned on a procedural issue. The final decision was essentially the same as that in Karadzole v. Artukovic, 247 F. 2d 198 (9th Cir., 1957).

⁸⁸ See Harlan, J., in U. S. ex rel. Hintopoulous v. Shaughnessy, 353 TJ. S. 72, 78 (1957); Torres Gigena, cited note 54 above, p. 140.

⁸⁹ New York Times Book Review, Jan. 14, 1962, p. 12, col. 4.

⁹⁰ This is an argument for more rapid development of such useful sources as the International Law Beports and the official and unofficial surveys of state practice which are published in a very few countries.