A decade of intermittent archaeological research in the upper Zaña Valley in northern Peru has documented an intensive Middle Preceramic period (ca. 6000—4200 B.C.) occupation in the tropical-forest and thorn-forest ecotone on the western Andean slopes. This research has revealed one stratified nonresidential site (the Cementerio de Nanchoc), characterized by dual earth mounds, and a complex of small, preceramic residential sites in the Nanchoc branch of the valley. The nonresidential site is associated with the production of lime, probably used as a mineral supplement to the diet or as an extractive agent with coca leaves. Evidence recovered from residential sites shows that incipient horticulturists, documented by the presence of several species of cultigens, and unspecialized hunters and gathers lived in scattered households located along small streams in alluvial fans above the valley floor. A unifacial lithic technology and a diversified ground-stone technology attest to an economy primarily adapted to plant resources. The preceramic culture of the upper Zaña Valley is interpreted as a local manifestation of an early western-slope-forest cultural tradition associated with the development of a specialized public precinct and the adoption and intensification of agriculture.

Archaeologists increasingly have become aware of the effects of bias and have made strides to identify and correct for error introduced in such areas as sampling and recovery techniques. Much less attention has been paid to the significance of bias introduced during artifact analysis. The potential for analyst-induced error is discussed in terms of: (1) the explicitness of class definitions, (2) differences in perception among analysts, and (3) changes in a single analyst's perception over time. Using a regression-based approach, sources of possible analytic error are detected in an archaeological data set recovered from Steens Mountain, Oregon.

Excavations conducted during 1983 and 1984 at the Temple of Quetzalcoatl at Teotihuacan, Mexico, encountered three important burials, including an extensive multiple burial with lithic, shell, and bone offerings. Various lines of evidence suggest that human sacrifices were being practiced on a large scale early in Teotihuacan's history. Moreover, the nature and content of the offerings demonstrate the importance of military aspects in early Teotihuacan society. In addition, other data from excavations at the Old Temple of Quetzalcoatl suggest that religious and political conflicts probably occurred since the time of its construction.

The question of when the first people came to North America defies consensus. Data from an array of fields would seem to narrow the number and timing of migrations, but that evidence is at best circumstantial and cannot be used to constrain what is strictly an archaeological matter. Advocates of a pre-12,000 B.P. human population assert that their evidence is valid and is rejected by skeptics only because of deep-set historical biases. That assertion is not well-founded. If a bias exists, it is in the assumption that there were only three discrete migrations, the earliest of which was Clovis. The possibility that these migrations were not discrete episodes involving small founding populations, but instead may have been migratory dribbles spread over thousands of years, has implications for understanding the variation evident among modern descendant populations and the archaeological variability of Clovis. The possibility that there were early, pre-12,000 B.P. migrations that may have been wholly unrelated to Clovis and failed, may have equally important implications for why we don"t know when the first people came to North America.

Ongoing research in the Nenana Valley is uncovering a complex record of Late Glacial settlement in the foothills of the Alaska Range. A local eolian sequence provides relatively precise stratigraphic and chronological control, permitting integration with regional paleoclimatic history. Initial occupation seems to have occurred approximately 12,000 years ago, and is represented by several assemblages containing bifacial points. Microblade technology did not appear until ca. 10,500 B.P. The valley probably was exploited on a seasonal basis for large mammal procurement.

The prehistoric period of the northern American Southwest is characterized by increased population, increased agricultural production, and regional depopulation. Most current models of evolutionary change that attempt to explain these phenomena are defined at the scale of "culture" or of a specific adaptation, e.g., "Anasazi adaptive system." I suggest that for most purposes these are not productive constructs, and that their application makes useful explanations difficult, if not impossible to formulate. As a further liability, these models ignore the role of natural selection as an explanatory mechanism, preferring instead to seek explanation through the premature application of the concept of adaptation. The application of a selectionist perspective, as opposed to the more popular adaptationist model, leads to the conclusion that the operation of natural selection favoring productive specialization accounts for the characteristics noted above for the prehistoric American Southwest.

Lake Pátzcuaro (2,035 m asl), situated in the temperate highland-forest region of central Mexico, was the focus of Postclassic Tarascan civilization. Today, the lake is bordered by wide, swampy flats, which can be interpreted as low-angle fans of colluvial material derived from the deeply eroded, lower-valley side slopes. A gully near the northwest shore exposed two colluvial units: The lower one was dated at 2,300 years B.P. (350 B.C.) at the base of the exposure, while the upper one yielded three 14C ages ranging from 270 years B.P. (A.D. 1680) to "modern." Both units contained abundant charcoal. Pollen studies by Watts and Bradbury (1982) suggest that the first phase was initiated by the widespread introduction of maize cultivation around 1550 B.C. The second, more intense, phase of forest clearance, although it may have begun during the Late Postclassic period, probably culminated during the great expansion of colonial plough agriculture and livestock rearing in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Archaeologists have sought to assess prehistoric pottery production by using hardness as an indicator of the relation between ceramic materials and firing temperature. Yet hardness testing commonly has been limited to a scratch test, which is imprecise and lacks the precision necessary to investigate these relations. Recent research has developed the application of indentation hardness testing for prehistoric ceramics. A sample of low-fired plainware pottery from the Shoofly Village Ruin in Arizona was used as a test case. Results indicate the technique produces continuous scale measurements which are precise and useful for the investigation of intraassemblage variations. The method overcomes many limitations of the traditional scratch test and may be used for either prehistoric or experimental ceramic samples. Indentation hardness testing provides the precision needed to more fully examine the complex relations between hardness and other ceramic attributes.

While isotopic and elemental analyses of prehistoric skeletons have made an important contribution to paleodietary research over the last 10 years, certain problems in the application of these techniques only now are emerging. These problems, affecting both isotopic and trace-element studies, mainly are due to the peculiar interdisciplinary nature of the field, rather than to any technological barrier. With minor exceptions, techniques developed largely in other sciences have been grafted on to archaeological problems. This no longer suffices because gaps remain in the scientific grounding of these techniques that need to be addressed before more complicated archaeological questions can be resolved. While the necessary studies may seem to be of little immediate anthropological interest, they are vital if continued progress in paleodietary research is to characterize the years ahead.

Occupation spans of small late prehistoric sites in the American Bottom of southwestern Illinois are estimated through consideration of the formation of ceramic refuse. Archaeological and ethnographic data inform a model which takes the form of both a computer simulation and a quantitative transform. Critical variables include a behavioral assemblage, a disposal assemblage, vessel use life, and breakage and replacement rates. A number of factors may have influenced settlement duration, but a preliminary examination does not reveal a significant correlation between environmental features and occupation span. The relation of these lower-order settlements to higher-order centers in the American Bottom settlement hierarchy may not have necessitated maximizing the economic potential of a given rural catchment.

Clovis projectile points and chipped-stone tools have been recovered in a number of archaeological sites in the New World, but these cannot be tested on mammoths, which we know from the archaeological evidence Clovis hunters were able to procure. Extensive culling of elephants in Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe provided the necessary animals to test replicas of Clovis tools and weaponry. The experiments leave little doubt that Clovis projectile points can inflict lethal wounds on African elephants and that simple stone tools will perform the necessary butchering tasks. The physiology of mammoths and elephants is similar enough to make positive statements on the potential of this kind of stone-tool and weaponry assemblage, but we will never be able to compare elephant and mammoth behavior directly.

This paper presents the results of testing technological and techno-functional hypotheses concerning the effects of organic temper. Behaviorally relevant tests are used to compare the performance characteristics of untempered, mineral-, and organic-tempered briquettes and vessels. The characteristics tested include impact resistance, abrasion resistance, portability, thermal shock resistance, ease of manufacture, and heating effectiveness. Organic-tempered ceramics have superior performance characteristics during manufacture, allowing for an expedient ceramic technology. This, along with reduced weight and greater portability, may explain the preference for organic-tempered vessels by groups that frequently shift their residence. Moreover, it is found that all low-fired ceramics, but especially organic-tempered ceramics, are susceptible to complete breakdown in a moist environment under freeze-thaw conditions. Frost wedging is thought to be responsible for an underestimation of Late Archaic organic-tempered ceramics in northern latitudes as well as the destruction of any low-fired pottery subject to a moist depositional environment and freeze-thaw cycles.

This paper introduces a new technique for the quantitative analysis of ceramic thin sections through petrography. The technique is a version of point counting that estimates with considerable precision the amounts of human additives (temper) and natural inclusions (silt and sand) in ceramic pastes. In concert with traditional qualitative identification of mineral inclusions, this technique expands the capacity of petrography to shed meaningful light on such topics in ceramic analysis as technology, production, trade, and classification. To demonstrate the utility of the technique it is used to reassess the taxonomic status of the type Spring Hollow Incised. The results conclusively show that Spring Hollow Incised is much more closely related to a newly defined Early Woodland ceramic assemblage in the Upper Mississippi Valley region than to the Middle Woodland Linn ware to which it originally was assigned.

Reported criteria for distinguishing wild Zea varieties (teosinte) from cultivated primative maize using plant opal phytolith morphology were tested using computer-assisted image analysis. Results showed current criteria to be effective but inconsistent. A straightforward stereological algorithm was derived from image analysis data providing high-confidence statistical assignment of the Zea phytolith populations in this study to wild or cultivated categories.

An extremely important institution among the Indians of the Southeast in the historic period, the calumet ceremony was first recognized by French adventurers in the Upper Mississippi Valley and Great Lakes region in the mid-seventeenth century. By the end of the century the ceremony was universal among Lower Mississippi Valley groups. A major focus of calumet literature in recent years has been on the timing of and the mechanism for the introduction of this ceremony in the Eastern Woodlands. Some have argued for prehistoric roots, while others have supported a historic development. A study of the spatiotemporal distribution of catlinite pipes is one way to address these issues, because such pipes are the principal archaeological expression of the ceremony. This paper focuses on the two most common catlinite pipe forms: disk pipes and elbow pipes. Overall, both forms are rare in the Southeast, but relatively they are widespread. The disk type has the greatest range and is also the earlier of the two forms, primarily being found during the protohistoric period. It is proposed here, however, that calumet introduction was coincident with the elbow catlinite form that first appeared in the Southeast in the mid-to-late seventeenth century. It is believed that calumet ceremonialism was spreading into the southern portion of the Lower Mississippi Valley at about the same time as the first French explorers were entering the area from the north.

In spite of deranging factors that have retarded full acceptance, the obsidian hydration dating method has potential for archaeology. Its application to 16 obsidian samples from a Tecep phase burial (A.D. 800-1100+) at the Maya site of Nohmul, Belize, suggests late persistence of occupation and allows for resolution of a stratigraphic problem.

Elevated lake levels resulting from dam construction in the early twentieth century is producing widespread shoreline erosion at Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota. In an effort to preserve a sample of the more significant archaeological sites, the National Park Service has initiated a program of site stabilization. Stabilization of the Clyde Creek and Sweetnose Island sites was accomplished during the winter months by transporting materials and supplies across an ice road. The use of filter fabric and turf-stabilization matting in association with large quantities of sediment and riprap have produced a new shoreline that serves to protect the respective archaeological deposits. This approach has successfully preserved these intact archaeological resources and avoided the costs associated with large-scale data recovery and curation of collections.

Ongoing controversy over the identification of mesoamerican centers as the locus for specialized production of stone tools is addressed by reference to a consumer locality in the eastern Maya Lowlands. Lithic data from Pulltrouser Swamp are used to shed light on the production intensity and scale of a distribution system centered at Colha, Belize. Debitage analyses of technological attributes, use wear, and metric dimensions contrast two contexts of lithic procurement at Pulltrouser Swamp: direct procurement of raw material and indirect procurement of finished tools. Each procurement context results in debitage with different variable states. Characterization of the Colha chert lithic material at Pulltrouser Swamp as a consumer assemblage is supported further by the results of a discriminant analysis in which an experimental "consumer" assemblage is classified with the Colha chert. Such characterizations of lithic assemblages are more robust methodologically and more informative substantively than attempts at the quantification of production or usage rates. The implications of scalar differences in production systems are discussed.

The discovery of a number of prehispanic saltmaking sites on the southern coast of Belize by the Point Placencia Archaeological Project suggests a concern with local saltmaking during the Late Classic and perhaps later periods. Previously, only one small source was thought to have produced salt in prehispanic Belize, and it was believed that most of this mineral was imported from the northern coast of Yucatan. This paper describes the sites located by our survey and offers an interpretation of the local saltmaking process. It is suggested that Placencia salt was inferior in quality to that from Yucatan, and that it might have been consumed by commoners, while elites were able to obtain pure Yucatecan salt.

Blakeslee (1987) has suggested that the Mound Builder myth in part can be traced to John Rowzée Peyton, who reportedly crossed the Great Plains in 1774 and probed a mound, attributing it to a past, non-Indian civilization. However, critical examination of the account, first published in 1867, indicates that John Rowzée Peyton’s adventure actually was invented by his grandson, John Lewis Peyton.