Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Hospital Discharge Survey: 2010, with special feature on death and dying. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics, 2011.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health research and quality: cost of hospital discharges with common hospital operating room procedures in nonfederal community hospitals, by age and selected principle procedure: United States 2000-2010. 2012. Available from: www.cdc.gov/hchs/hus/contents2012.htm#115 (Accessed July 14, 2017).Google Scholar

Kurtz, S, Ong, K, Lau, E, Mowat, F, Halpern, M. Projections of primary and revision hip and knee arthroplasty in the United States from 2005 to 2030. J Bone Jt. 2007; 89:780–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pugely, AJ, Martin, CT, Gao, Y, Mendoza-Lattes, S, Callaghan, JJ. Differences in short-term complications between spinal and general anesthesia for primary total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013; 95:193–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Memtsoudis, SG, Sun, X, Chiu, Y-L, et al. Perioperative comparative effectiveness of anesthetic technique in orthopedic patients. Anesthesiology. 2013; 118:1046–1058.Google Scholar

Memtsoudis, SG, Rasul, R, Suzuki, S, et al. Does the impact of the type of anesthesia on outcomes differ by patient age and comorbidity burden? Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2014; 39:112–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Basques, BA, Toy, JO, Bohl, DD, Golinvaus, NS, Grauer, JN. General compared with spinal anesthesia for total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2015; 97:455–461.Google Scholar

Krenk, L, Rasmussen, LS, Hansen, TB, et al. Delirium after fast-track hip and knee arthroplasty. Br J Anaesth. 2012; 108:607–611.Google Scholar

Patel, S, Das, S, Stedman, RB. Urgent cesarean section in a patient with a spinal cord stimulator: implications for surgery and anesthesia. Ochsner J. 2014; 14:131–134.Google Scholar

Harsten, A, Kehlet, H, Ljung, P, Toksvig-Larsen, S. Total intravenous anaesthesia vs. spinal anaesthesia for total hip arthroplasty: a randomized, controlled trial. Acta Anaesth Scand. 2015; 59:298–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harden, RN, Bruehl, S, Stanos, S, et al. Prospective examination of pain-related and psychological predictors of CRPS-like phenomena following total knee arthroplasty: a preliminary study. Pain. 2003; 106:393–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hebl, JR, Dilger, JA, Byer, DE, et al. A pre-emptive multimodal pathway featuring peripheral nerve block improves perioperative outcomes after major orthopedic surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008; 33:510–517.Google Scholar

Kurmis, AP, Kurmis, TP, O'Brien, JX, Dalen, T. The effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug administration on acute phase fracture-healing: a reivew. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012; 94:815–823.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Trelle, S, Reichenbach, S, Wandel, S, et al. Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011; 342:c7086.Google Scholar

Buvanendran, A, Kroin, JS, Della Valle, CJ, et al. Perioperative oral pregabalin reduces chronic pain after total knee arthroplasty: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2010; 110:199–207.Google Scholar

Martinez, V, Cymerman, A, Ben Ammar, S, et al. The analgesic efficiency of combined pregabalin and ketamine for total hip arthroplasty: a randomised, double-blind, controlled study. Anaesthesia. 2014; 69:46–52.Google Scholar

Clarke, H, Pereira, S, Kennedy, D, et al. Gabapentin decreases morphine consumption and improves functional recovery following total knee arthroplasty. Pain Res Manag. 2009; 14:217–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Clarke, H, Katz, J, McCartney, C, et al. Perioperative gabapentin reduces 24 hour opioid consumption and improves in-hospital rehabilitation but not postdischarge outcomes after total knee arthroplasty with peripheral nerve block. Br J Anaesth. 2014; 113(5):855–864.Google Scholar

Paul, J, Nantha-Aree, M, Buckley, N, et al. Gabapentin did not reduce morphine consumption, pain, opioid-related side effects in total knee arthroplasty. Can J Anaesth. 2013; 60(5):423–431.Google Scholar

Remérand, F, Le Tendre, C, Baud, A, et al. The early and delayed analgesic effects of ketamine after total hip arthroplasty: a prospective, randomized, controlled, double-blind study. Anesth Analg. 2009; 109:1963–1971.Google Scholar

Mu, JL, Lee, A, Joynt, GM. Pharmacologic agents for the prevention and treatment of delirium in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Crit Care Med. 2015; 43(1):194–204.Google Scholar

Chan, EY, Fransen, M, Parker, DA, Assam, PN, Chua, N. Femoral nerve blocks for acute postoperative pain after knee replacement surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014(5):CD009941.Google Scholar

Machi, AT, Sztain, JF, Kormylo, NJ et al. Discharge readiness after tricompartment knee arthroplasty: adductor canal versus femoral continuous nerve blocks-a dual-center randomized trial. Anesthesiology. 2015; 123:444–456.Google Scholar

Abdallah, FW, Brull, R. Is sciatic nerve block advantageous when combined with femoral nerve block for postoperative analgesia following total knee arthroplasty? A systematic review. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011; 36(5):493–498.Google Scholar

Nagafuchi, M, Sato, T, Sakuma, T, et al. Femoral nerve block-sciatic nerve block vs. femoral nerve block-local infiltration analgesia for total knee arthroplasty: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Anesthesiol. 2015; 15:182–188.Google Scholar

Grevstad, U, Mathiesen, O, Valentiner, LS, et al. Effect of adductor canal block versus femoral nerve block on quadriceps strength, mobilization, and pain after total knee arthroplasty. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015; 40(1):3–10.Google Scholar

Memtsoudis, S, Danniger, T, Rasul, R, et al. Inpatient falls after total knee arthroplasty. Anesthesiology. 2014; 120:551–563.Google Scholar

Peder, A, Karlsen, H, Geisler, A, et al. Postoperative pain treatment after total hip arthroplasty: a systematic review. Pain. 2015; 156:8–30.Google Scholar

Fan, L, Zhu, C, Zan, P, et al. The comparison of local infiltration analgesia with peripheral nerve block following TKA: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Arthroplasty. 2015; 30(9):1664–1671.Google Scholar

Andersen, LØ, Kehlet, H. Analgesic efficacy of local infiltration analgesia in hip and knee arthroplasty: a systematic review. Br J Anaesth. 2014; 113(3):360–374.Google Scholar

Surdam, JW, Licini, DJ, Baynes, NT, Arce, BR. The use of Exparel (liposomal bupivacaine) to manage postoperative pain in unilateral total knee arthroplasty patients. J Arthrop. 2015; 30:325–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barrington, JW, Oluseun, O, Lovald, S, Liposomal bupivacaine: a comparative study of more than 1000 total joint arthroplasty cases. Orthop Clin N Am. 2015; 46:469–477.Google Scholar

Bierbaum, BE, Callaghan, JJ, Galante, JO, et al. An analysis of blood management in patients having a total hip or knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg. 1999; 81-A:1–10.Google Scholar

Friedman, R, Homering, M, Holberg, G, Berkowitz, SD. Allogeneic blood transfusions and postoperative infections after total hip or knee arthroplasty. J Bon Joint Surg Am. 2014; 96:272–278.Google Scholar

Danninger, T, Rasul, R, Poeran, J, et al. Blood transfusion in total hip and knee arthroplasty: an analysis of outcomes. Sci World J. 2014:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

So-Osman, C, Nelissen, RG, Koopman-van Gemert, AW, et al. Patient blood management in elective total hip and knee replacement surgery: Part 1. Anesthesiology. 2014; 120:839–851.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Phan, DL, Ani, F, Schwarzkopf, R. Cost analysis of tranexamic acid in anemic total joint arthroplasty patients. J Arthroplasty. 2016; 31(3):579–582.Google Scholar

Green, WS, Toy, P, Bozic, KJ. Cost minimization analysis of perioperative erythropoietin vs autologous and allogeneic blood donation in total joint arthroplasty. J Arthoplasty. 2010; 25:93–96.Google Scholar

So-Osman, C, Nelissen, RG, Koopman-van Gemert, AW, et al. Patient blood management in elective total hip and knee replacement surgery: Part 2. Anesthesiology. 2014; 120:852–860.Google Scholar

Kim, S, Bou Monsef, J, King, EA, Sculco, TP, Boettner, F. Nonanemic patients do not benefit from autologous blood donation before total knee replacement. HSSJ. 2011; 7:141–144.Google Scholar

Bong, MR, Patel, V, Chang, E, et al. Risks associated with blood transfusion after total knee arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty. 2014; 19:281–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Friedman, R, Homering, M, Holberg, G, Berkowitz, SD. Allogeneic blood transfusions and postoperative infections after total hip or knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014; 96:272–278.Google Scholar

Gilbody, J, Dhotar, HS, Perruccio, AV, Davey, JR. Topical tranexamic acid reduces transfusion rates in total hip and knee arthroplasty. J Arthoplasty. 2014; 29:681–684.Google Scholar

Alshryda, S, Sarda, P, Sukeik, M, et al. Tranexamic acid in total knee replacement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2011; 93(12):1577–1585.Google Scholar

Oremus, K, Sostaric, S, Trkulja, V, Haspl, M. Influence of tranexamic acid on postoperative autologous blood retransfusion in primary total knee and hip arthroplasty: a randomized, controlled trial. Transfusion. 2014; 54:31–41.Google Scholar

Poeran, J, Rasul, R, Suzuki, S, et al. Tranexamic acid use and postoperative outcomes in patients undergoing total hip or knee arthroplasty in the United States: retrospective analysis of effectiveness and safety. BMJ. 2014; 349:g4829.Google Scholar

Ponnusamy, KE, Kim, TJ, Khanjua, HS. Perioperative blood transfusions in orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014; 96:1836–1844.Google Scholar

Li, M, Bertout, JA, Ratcliff, SJ, et al. Acute anemia elicits cognitive dysfunction and evidence of cerebral cellular hypoxia in older rats with systemic hypertension. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113:845–858.Google Scholar

Jacobs, JJ, Mont, MA, Bozic, KJ, et al. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons clinical practice guideline on preventing venous thromboembolic disease in patients undergoing elective hip and knee arthroplasty. J Bone Jt Surg. 2012; 94:746–747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Galanis, T, Merli, GJ. New oral anticoagulants: prevention of VTE in phase III studies in total joint replacement surgery and the hospitalized medically-ill patients. J Thromb Thrombol. 2013; 36(2):141–148.Google Scholar

Raphael, IJ, Tischler, EH, Huang, R, et al. Aspirin: an alternative for pulmonary embolism prophylaxis after arthroplasty? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014; 472:482–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Horlocker, TT, Wedel, DJ, Rowlingson, JC, et al. Regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine evidence-based guidelines (third edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med; 35:64–101.Google Scholar

Khanuja, HS, Vakil, JJ, Goddard, MS, Mont, MA. Cementless femoral fixation in total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011; 93:500–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Donaldson, A, Thomson, H, Harper, N, Kenny, N. Bone cement implantation syndrome. Br J Anaesth. 2009; 102(1):12–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brallier, JW, Diener, S. The elderly spine surgery patient: pre- and intraoperative management of drug therapy. Drugs Aging. 2015; 32:601–609.Google Scholar

Acosta, FL, McClendon, J, O'Shaughnessy, BA, et al. Morbidity and mortality after spinal deformity surgery in patients 75 years and older: complication and predictive factors. J Neurosurg Spine. 2011; 15:667–674.Google Scholar

O'Lynnger, TM, Zuckerman, SL, Morone, PJ, Vasquez-Castellonos, RA, Cheng, JS. Trends for spine surgery for the elderly: implication for access to healthcare in North America. Neurosurgery. 2015; 77:S136–S141.Google Scholar

McGirt, MJ, Parker, SL, Hilibrand, A, et al. Lumbar surgery in the elderly provides significant health benefits in the US health care system: patient-reported outcomes in 4370 patients from the N2QOD registry. Neurosurgery. 2015; 77:S125–S135.Google Scholar

Puvanesarajah, V, Liauw, JA, Lina, IA, et al. Analgesic therapy for major spine surgery. Neruosurg Rev. 2015; 38:407–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chan, MT. BIS-guided anesthesia decreases postoperative delirium and cognitive decline. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2013; 25:33–42.Google Scholar

Radke, F. Monitoring depth of anesthesia decreases the rate of postoperative delirium but not postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Br J Anaesth. 2013; 110(Suppl 1):i98–i105.Google Scholar

Deiner, S, Lin, HM, Bodansky, D, Silverstein, J, Sano, M. Do stress markers and anesthetic technique predict delirium in the elderly? Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2014; 38:366–374.Google Scholar

Goldstein, CL, Chutkan, NB, Choma, TJ, Orr, RD. Management of the elderly with vertebral compression fractures. Neurosurgery 2015; 77:S33–S45.Google Scholar

Luginbühl, M. Percutaneous vertebroplasty, kyphoplasty and lordoplasty: implications for the anesthesiologist. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008; 21:504–513.Google Scholar

Chen, H-L, Wong, C-S, Ho, S-T, et al. A lethal pulmonary embolism during percutaneous vertebroplasty. Anesth Analg. 2002; 95(4):1060–1062.Google Scholar

Lim, KJ, Yoon, SZ, Jeon, YS, et al. An intraatrial thrombus and pulmonary thromboembolism as a late complication of percutaneous vertebroplasty. Anesth Analg. 2007; 104(4):924–926.Google Scholar