Introduction: How Has Democratisation Affected African Countries?

The 1989 National Conference in Benin opened the era of political liberalisation and re-democratisation in sub-Saharan Africa, an era marked with such optimism that Claude Ake (2000) characterised it as Africa's ‘second independence’. A combination of internal and external factors created effective pressure for political change which culminated in the introduction of multi-party elections in most African countries in the 1990s (Nolutshungu 1992; Rijnierse 1993). Democracy, understood as institutionalised and competitive elections, along with respect for civil and political liberties, was once again on the agenda of many countries that had hitherto suffered from the suffocating yoke of one-party rule or outright military dictatorships. Public opposition to the authoritarian regimes arose out of a steady accumulation of discontent over many years, accentuated by economic hardship and deepening social divisions of ethnicity, religion, class and region. This opposition included a variety of groups and interests: marginalised politicians, businessmen who lacked or had lost the favour of government, people from regions which they felt had been left out or discriminated against by governments, workers and trade unions, students, women's organisations, religious organisations and human rights activists (Ake 2000).

The agitations of these groups represented a resurgence of normative values, particularly of freedom and economic well-being that had long been repressed by authoritarian post-colonial regimes. Many local actors within specific African countries hoped that democratisation would bring greater political inclusion, the demilitarisation of politics, greater economic and social opportunities, and a loosening of presidential authoritarianism.