Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7d684dbfc8-lxvtp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2023-09-30T01:04:27.320Z Has data issue: false Feature Flags: { "corePageComponentGetUserInfoFromSharedSession": true, "coreDisableEcommerce": false, "coreDisableSocialShare": false, "coreDisableEcommerceForArticlePurchase": false, "coreDisableEcommerceForBookPurchase": false, "coreDisableEcommerceForElementPurchase": false, "coreUseNewShare": true, "useRatesEcommerce": true } hasContentIssue false

Section II - Iatrogenic ischemic strokes: stroke after endovascular procedures

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 October 2016

Alexander Tsiskaridze
Affiliation:
Sarajishvili Institute of Neurology, Tblisi State University, Georgia
Arne Lindgren
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, University Hospital Lund, Sweden
Adnan I. Qureshi
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Treatment-Related Stroke
Including Iatrogenic and In-Hospital Strokes
, pp. 63 - 112
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Alberts, M J, Brass, L M, Perry, A, Webb, D, Dawson, D V. Evaluation times for patients with in-hospital strokes. Stroke. 1993; 24:1817–22.
Emiru, T, Adil, M M, Suri, M F, Qureshi, A I. Thrombolytic treatment for in-hospital ischemic strokes in United States. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Neurology. 2014; 7:2834.
Kelley, R E, Kovacs, A G. Mechanism of in-hospital cerebral ischemia. Stroke. 1986; 17:430–3.
Barnwell, S L, Clark, W M, Nguyen, T T, et al. Safety and efficacy of delayed intraarterial urokinase therapy with mechanical clot disruption for thromboembolic stroke. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1994; 15:1817–22.
Bavinzski, G, Killer, M, Ferraz-Leite, H, et al. Endovascular therapy of idiopathic cavernous aneurysms over 11 years. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:559–65.
Belan, A, Vesela, M, Vanek, I, Weiss, K, Peregrin, J H. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of fibromuscular dysplasia of the internal carotid artery. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology. 1982; 5:7981.
Benati, A. Interventional neuroradiology for the treatment of inaccessible arterio-venous malformations. Acta Neurochirurgica. 1992; 118:76–9.
Brown, M M, Butler, P, Gibbs, J, Swash, M, Waterston, J. Feasibility of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty for carotid artery stenosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1990; 53:238–43.
Casasco, A E, Aymard, A, Gobin, Y P, et al. Selective endovascular treatment of 71 intracranial aneurysms with platinum coils. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1993; 79:310.
Cognard, C, Weill, A, Castaings, L, Rey, A, Moret, J. Intracranial berry aneurysms: Angiographic and clinical results after endovascular treatment. Radiology. 1998; 206:499510.
Crawley, F, Clifton, A, Buckenham, T, et al. Comparison of hemodynamic cerebral ischemia and microembolic signals detected during carotid endarterectomy and carotid angioplasty. Stroke. 1997; 28:2460–4.
Crawley, F, Clifton, A, Markus, H, Brown, M M. Delayed improvement in carotid artery diameter after carotid angioplasty. Stroke. 1997; 28:574–9.
Criado, F J, Wellons, E, Clark, N S. Evolving indications for and early results of carotid artery stenting. American Journal of Surgery. 1997; 174:111–14.
Cronqvist, M, Pierot, L, Boulin, A, et al. Local intraarterial fibrinolysis of thromboemboli occurring during endovascular treatment of intracerebral aneurysm: A comparison of anatomic results and clinical outcome. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:157–65.
Debrun, G, Vinuela, F, Fox, A, Drake, C G. Embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations with bucrylate. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1982; 56:615–27.
Debrun, G M, Aletich, V, Ausman, J I, Charbel, F, Dujovny, M. Embolization of the nidus of brain arteriovenous malformations with n-butyl cyanoacrylate. Neurosurgery. 1997; 40:112–20.
Debrun, G M, Aletich, V A, Kehrli, P, et al. Selection of cerebral aneurysms for treatment using Guglielmi detachable coils: The preliminary University of Illinois at Chicago experience. Neurosurgery. 1998; 43:1281–95.
Diethrich, E B, Ndiaye, M, Reid, D B. Stenting in the carotid artery: Initial experience in 110 patients. Journal of Endovascular Surgery. 1996; 3:4262.
Dion, J E, Gates, P C, Fox, A J, Barnett, H J, Blom, R J. Clinical events following neuroangiography: A prospective study. Stroke. 1987; 18:9971004.
Earnest, F T, Forbes, G, Sandok, B A, et al. Complications of cerebral angiography: Prospective assessment of risk. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1984; 142:247–53.
Endo, S, Kuwayama, N, Hirashima, Y, et al. Results of urgent thrombolysis in patients with major stroke and atherothrombotic occlusion of the cervical internal carotid artery. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:1169–75.
Fournier, D, TerBrugge, K G, Willinsky, R, Lasjaunias, P, Montanera, W. Endovascular treatment of intracerebral arteriovenous malformations: Experience in 49 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1991; 75:228–33.
Fox, A J, Pelz, D M, Lee, D H. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: Recent results of endovascular therapy. Radiology. 1990; 177:51–7.
Freitag, G, Freitag, J, Koch, R D, Wagemann, W. Percutaneous angioplasty of carotid artery stenoses. Neuroradiology. 1986; 28:126–7.
Frey, J L, Greene, K A, Khayata, M H, et al. Intrathrombus administration of tissue plasminogen activator in acute cerebrovascular occlusion. Angiology. 1995; 46:649–56.
Gil-Peralta, A, Mayol, A, Marcos, J R, et al. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of the symptomatic atherosclerotic carotid arteries. Results, complications, and follow-up. Stroke. 1996; 27:2271–3.
Gobin, Y P, Laurent, A, Merienne, L, et al. Treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations by embolization and radiosurgery. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1996; 85:1928.
Graves, V B, Strother, C M, Duff, T A, Perl, J 2nd. Early treatment of ruptured aneurysms with Guglielmi detachable coils: Effect on subsequent bleeding. Neurosurgery. 1995; 37:640–7.
Guglielmi, G, Vinuela, F, Duckwiler, G, et al. Endovascular treatment of posterior circulation aneurysms by electrothrombosis using electrically detachable coils. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1992; 77:515–24.
Gurian, J H, Martin, N A, King, W A, et al. Neurosurgical management of cerebral aneurysms following unsuccessful or incomplete endovascular embolization. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1995; 83:843–53.
Guterman, L R, Budny, J L, Gibbons, K J, Hopkins, L N. Thrombolysis of the cervical internal carotid artery before balloon angioplasty and stent placement: Report of two cases. Neurosurgery. 1996; 38:620–3.
Heiserman, J E, Dean, B L, Hodak, J A, et al. Neurologic complications of cerebral angiography. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1994; 15:1401–7.
Henry, M, Amor, M, Masson, I, et al. Angioplasty and stenting of the extracranial carotid arteries. Journal of Endovascular Surgery. 1998; 5:293304.
Heras, M, Chesebro, J H, Penny, W J, et al. Importance of adequate heparin dosage in arterial angioplasty in a porcine model. Circulation. 1988; 78:654–60.
Higashida, R T, Halbach, V V, Barnwell, S L, et al. Treatment of intracranial aneurysms with preservation of the parent vessel: Results of percutaneous balloon embolization in 84 patients. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1990; 11:633–40.
Higashida, R T, Halbach, V V, Cahan, L D, Hieshima, G B, Konishi, Y. Detachable balloon embolization therapy of posterior circulation intracranial aneurysms. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1989; 71:512–19.
Higashida, R T, Halbach, V V, Dowd, C, et al. Endovascular detachable balloon embolization therapy of cavernous carotid artery aneurysms: Results in 87 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1990; 72:857–63.
Higashida, R T, Halbach, V V, Dowd, C F, Barnwell, S L, Hieshima, G B. Intracranial aneurysms: Interventional neurovascular treatment with detachable balloons – results in 215 cases. Radiology. 1991; 178:663–70.
Hodes, J E, Aymard, A, Gobin, Y P, et al. Endovascular occlusion of intracranial vessels for curative treatment of unclippable aneurysms: Report of 16 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1991; 75:694701.
Huang, Z, Dai, Q, Suo, J, et al. Percutaneous endovascular embolization of intracerebral arteriovenous malformations. Experience in 72 cases. Chinese Medical Journal. 1995; 108:413–19.
Jordan, W D Jr., Schroeder, P T, Fisher, W S, McDowell, H A. A comparison of angioplasty with stenting versus endarterectomy for the treatment of carotid artery stenosis. Annals of Vascular Surgery. 1997; 11:28.
Jordan, W D Jr., Voellinger, D C, Doblar, D D, et al. Microemboli detected by transcranial Doppler monitoring in patients during carotid angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy. Cardiovascular Surgery. 1999; 7:33–8.
Kachel, R, Basche, S, Heerklotz, I, Grossmann, K, Endler, S. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) of supra-aortic arteries especially the internal carotid artery. Neuroradiology. 1991; 33:191–4.
Kachel, R, Endert, G, Basche, S, Grossmann, K, Glaser, F H. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (dilatation) of carotid, vertebral, and innominate artery stenoses. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology. 1987; 10:142–6.
Kearon, C, Hirsh, J. Management of anticoagulation before and after elective surgery. New England Journal of Medicine. 1997; 336:1506–11.
Kesava, P, Graves, V, Salamat, S, Rappe, A. Intraarterial thrombolysis in a pig model: A preliminary note. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1997; 18:915–20.
Klein, G E, Szolar, D H, Leber, K A, Karaic, R, Hausegger, K A. Basilar tip aneurysm: Endovascular treatment with Guglielmi detachable coils – midterm results. Radiology. 1997; 205:191–6.
Klotzsch, C, Nahser, H C, Henkes, H, Kuhne, D, Berlit, P. Detection of microemboli distal to cerebral aneurysms before and after therapeutic embolization. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:1315–18.
Koenigsberg, R A, Wysoki, M, Weiss, J, Faro, S H, Tsai, F Y. Risk of clot formation in femoral arterial sheaths maintained overnight for neuroangiographic procedures. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1999; 20:297–9.
Krupski, W C, Bass, A, Kelly, A B, Hanson, S R, Harker, L A. Reduction in thrombus formation by placement of endovascular stents at endarterectomy sites in baboon carotid arteries. Circulation. 1991; 84:1749–57.
Kuether, T A, Nesbit, G M, Barnwell, S L. Clinical and angiographic outcomes, with treatment data, for patients with cerebral aneurysms treated with Guglielmi detachable coils: A single-center experience. Neurosurgery. 1998; 43:1016–25.
Lagalla, G, Ceravolo, M G, Provinciali, L, et al. Transcranial Doppler sonographic monitoring during cerebral aneurysm embolization: A preliminary report. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:1549–53.
Lam, J Y, Chesebro, J H, Steele, P M, et al. Deep arterial injury during experimental angioplasty: Relation to a positive indium-111-labeled platelet scintigram, quantitative platelet deposition and mural thrombosis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1986; 8:1380–6.
Larson, J J, Tew, J M Jr., Tomsick, T A, van Loveren, H R. Treatment of aneurysms of the internal carotid artery by intravascular balloon occlusion: Long-term follow-up of 58 patients. Neurosurgery. 1995; 36:2630.
Lincoff, A M, Tcheng, J E, Califf, R M, et al. Standard versus low-dose weight-adjusted heparin in patients treated with the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antibody fragment abciximab (c7E3 Fab) during percutaneous coronary revascularization. PROLOG investigators. American Journal of Cardiology. 1997; 79:286–91.
Lundqvist, C, Wikholm, G, Svendsen, P. Embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Part II – aspects of complications and late outcome. Neurosurgery. 1996; 39:460–7.
Malisch, T W, Guglielmi, G, Vinuela, F, et al. Intracranial aneurysms treated with the Guglielmi detachable coil: Midterm clinical results in a consecutive series of 100 patients. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997; 87:176–83.
Markus, H S, Clifton, A, Buckenham, T, Brown, M M. Carotid angioplasty. Detection of embolic signals during and after the procedure. Stroke. 1994; 25:2403–6.
Markus, H S, Clifton, A, Buckenham, T, Taylor, R, Brown, M M. Improvement in cerebral hemodynamics after carotid angioplasty. Stroke. 1996; 27:612–16.
Mathur, A, Roubin, G S, Gomez, C R, et al. Elective carotid artery stenting in the presence of contralateral occlusion. American Journal of Cardiology. 1998; 81:1315–17.
Mathur, A, Roubin, G S, Iyer, S S, et al. Predictors of stroke complicating carotid artery stenting. Circulation. 1998; 97:1239–45.
McDougall, C G, Halbach, V V, Dowd, C F, et al. Treatment of basilar tip aneurysms using electrolytically detachable coils. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1996; 84:393–9.
Mericle, R A, Lanzino, G, Wakhloo, A K, Guterman, L R, Hopkins, L N. Stenting and secondary coiling of intracranial internal carotid artery aneurysm: Technical case report. Neurosurgery. 1998; 43:1229–34.
Merland, J J, Rufenacht, D, Laurent, A, Guimaraens, L. Endovascular treatment with isobutyl cyano acrylate in patients with arteriovenous malformation of the brain. Indications, results and complications. Acta Radiologica. Supplementum. 1986; 369:621–2.
Moret, J, Pierot, L, Boulin, A, Castaings, L, Rey, A. Endovascular treatment of anterior communicating artery aneurysms using Guglielmi detachable coils. Neuroradiology. 1996; 38:800–5.
Munari, L M, Belloni, G, Perretti, A, et al. Carotid percutaneous angioplasty. Neurological Research. 1992; 14:156–8.
Nakstad, P H, Nornes, H. Superselective angiography, embolisation and surgery in treatment of arteriovenous malformations of the brain. Neuroradiology. 1994; 36:410–13.
Nesbit, G M, Clark, W M, O’Neill, O R, Barnwell, S L. Intracranial intraarterial thrombolysis facilitated by microcatheter navigation through an occluded cervical internal carotid artery. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1996; 84:387–92.
Nichols, D A, Brown, R D Jr., Thielen, K R, et al. Endovascular treatment of ruptured posterior circulation aneurysms using electrolytically detachable coils. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997; 87:374–80.
Pasqualin, A, Scienza, R, Cioffi, F, et al. Treatment of cerebral arteriovenous malformations with a combination of preoperative embolization and surgery. Neurosurgery. 1991; 29:358–68.
Pelz, D M, Lownie, S P, Fox, A J. Thromboembolic events associated with the treatment of cerebral aneurysms with Guglielmi detachable coils. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:1541–7.
Pierot, L, Boulin, A, Castaings, L, Rey, A, Moret, J. Selective occlusion of basilar artery aneurysms using controlled detachable coils: Report of 35 cases. Neurosurgery. 1996; 38:948–53.
Raschke, R A, Reilly, B M, Guidry, J R, Fontana, J R, Srinivas, S. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a “standard care” nomogram. A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1993; 119:874–81.
Raymond, J, Roy, D. Safety and efficacy of endovascular treatment of acutely ruptured aneurysms. Neurosurgery. 1997; 41:1235–45.
Raymond, J, Roy, D, Bojanowski, M, Moumdjian, R, L’Esperance, G. Endovascular treatment of acutely ruptured and unruptured aneurysms of the basilar bifurcation. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997; 86:211–19.
Raymond, J, Theron, J. Intracavernous aneurysms: Treatment by proximal balloon occlusion of the internal carotid artery. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1986; 7:1087–92.
Rich, L F, Weimar, V L, Squires, E L, Haraguchi, K H. Stimulation of corneal wound healing with mesodermal growth factor. Archives of Ophthalmology. 1979; 97:1326–30.
Roubin, G S, Yadav, S, Iyer, S S, Vitek, J. Carotid stent-supported angioplasty: A neurovascular intervention to prevent stroke. American Journal of Cardiology. 1996; 78:812.
Rowe, J G, Byrne, J V, Molyneux, A, Rajagopalan, B. Haemodynamic consequences of embolizing aneurysms: A transcranial Doppler study. British Journal of Neurosurgery. 1995; 9:749–57.
Rowe, J G, Molyneux, A J, Byrne, J V, Renowden, S, Aziz, T Z. Endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms: A minimally invasive approach with advantages for elderly patients. Age and Ageing. 1996; 25:372–6.
Sawyer, P N, Stanczewski, B, Pomerance, A, Stoner, G, Srinivasan, S. Utility of anticoagulant drugs in vascular thrombosis: Electron microscopic and biophysical study. Surgery. 1973; 74:263–75.
Scarborough, R M, Rose, J W, Hsu, M A, et al. Barbourin. A GPIIB-IIIa-specific integrin antagonist from the venom of Sistrurus m. barbouri. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1991; 266:9359–62.
Schatz, R A, Baim, D S, Leon, M, et al. Clinical experience with the Palmaz-Schatz coronary stent. Initial results of a multicenter study. Circulation. 1991; 83:148–61.
Schlossman, D. Thrombogenic properties of vascular catheter materials in vivo. The differences between materials. Acta Radiologica: Diagnosis. 1973; 14:186–92.
Schomig, A, Neumann, F J, Kastrati, A, al. A randomized comparison of antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy after the placement of coronary-artery stents. New England Journal of Medicine. 1996; 334:1084–9.
Schumacher, M, Horton, J A. Treatment of cerebral arteriovenous malformations with PVA. Results and analysis of complications. Neuroradiology. 1991; 33:101–5.
Segi, E, Sugimoto, Y, Yamasaki, A, et al. Patent ductus arteriosus and neonatal death in prostaglandin receptor EP4-deficient mice. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1998; 246:712.
Serbinenko, F A. Balloon catheterization and occlusion of major cerebral vessels. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1974; 41:125–45.
Serruys, P W, de Jaegere, P, Kiemeneij, F, et al. A comparison of balloon-expandable-stent implantation with balloon angioplasty in patients with coronary artery disease. Benestent study group. New England Journal of Medicine. 1994; 331:489–95.
Sharis, P J, Cannon, C P, Loscalzo, J. The antiplatelet effects of ticlopidine and clopidogrel. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1998; 129:394405.
Smedema, J P, Saaiman, A. Carotid stent-assisted angioplasty. South African Medical Journal. 1997; 87 Suppl 1:C914.
Smith, D C, Smith, L L, Hasso, A N. Fibromuscular dysplasia of the internal carotid artery treated by operative transluminal balloon angioplasty. Radiology. 1985; 155:645–8.
Smyth, S S, Joneckis, C C, Parise, L V. Regulation of vascular integrins. Blood. 1993; 81:2827–43.
Sobel, M, McNeill, P M, Carlson, P L, et al. Heparin inhibition of von Willebrand factor-dependent platelet function in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1991; 87:1787–93.
Speidel, C M, Eisenberg, P R, Ruf, W, Edgington, T S, Abendschein, D R. Tissue factor mediates prolonged procoagulant activity on the luminal surface of balloon-injured aortas in rabbits. Circulation. 1995; 92:3323–30.
Spetzler, R F, Martin, N A, Carter, L P, et al. Surgical management of large AVM’s by staged embolization and operative excision. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1987; 67:1728.
Stormorken, H. Effects of contrast media on the hemostatic and thrombotic mechanisms. Investigative Radiology. 1988; 23 Suppl 2:S318–25.
Taki, W, Nishi, S, Yamashita, K, et al. Selection and combination of various endovascular techniques in the treatment of giant aneurysms. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1992; 77:3742.
Teitelbaum, G P, Lefkowitz, M A, Giannotta, S L. Carotid angioplasty and stenting in high-risk patients. Surgical Neurology. 1998; 50:300–11.
Theodotou, B C, Whaley, R, Mahaley, M S. Complications following transfemoral cerebral angiography for cerebral ischemia. Report of 159 angiograms and correlation with surgical risk. Surgical Neurology. 1987; 28:90–2.
Theron, J, Courtheoux, P, Alachkar, F, Bouvard, G, Maiza, D. New triple coaxial catheter system for carotid angioplasty with cerebral protection. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1990; 11:869–74.
Theron, J G, Payelle, G G, Coskun, O, Huet, H F, Guimaraens, L. Carotid artery stenosis: Treatment with protected balloon angioplasty and stent placement. Radiology. 1996; 201:627–36.
Theroux, P. Antiplatelet therapy: Do the new platelet inhibitors add significantly to the clinical benefits of aspirin? American Heart Journal. 1997; 134:S6270.
Theroux, P, Waters, D, Lam, J, Juneau, M, McCans, J. Reactivation of unstable angina after the discontinuation of heparin. New England Journal of Medicine. 1992; 327:141–5.
Thielen, K R, Nichols, D A, Fulgham, J R, Piepgras, D G. Endovascular treatment of cerebral aneurysms following incomplete clipping. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997; 87:184–9.
Topol, E J. Ultrathrombolysis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1990; 15:922–4.
Topol, E J, Bonan, R, Jewitt, D, et al. Use of a direct antithrombin, hirulog, in place of heparin during coronary angioplasty. Circulation. 1993; 87:1622–9.
Touho, H. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty in the treatment of atherosclerotic disease of the anterior cerebral circulation and hemodynamic evaluation. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1995; 82:953–60.
Tournade, A, Courtheoux, P, Sengel, C, Ozgulle, S, Tajahmady, T. Saccular intracranial aneurysms: Endovascular treatment with mechanical detachable spiral coils. Radiology. 1997; 202:481–6.
Tsai, F Y, Matovich, V, Hieshima, G, et al. Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of the carotid artery. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1986; 7:349–58.
Turpie, A G. Successors to heparin: New antithrombotic agents. American Heart Journal. 1997; 134:S7177.
Van Belle, E, Tio, F O, Chen, D, et al. Passivation of metallic stents after arterial gene transfer of phVEGF165 inhibits thrombus formation and intimal thickening. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 1997; 29:1371–9.
Vinuela, F, Dion, J E, Duckwiler, G, et al. Combined endovascular embolization and surgery in the management of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Experience with 101 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1991; 75:856–64.
Vinuela, F, Duckwiler, G, Mawad, M. Guglielmi detachable coil embolization of acute intracranial aneurysm: Perioperative anatomical and clinical outcome in 403 patients. Journal of Neurosurgery. 1997; 86:475–82.
Vorchheimer, D A, Badimon, JJ, Fuster, V. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists in cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 1999; 281:1407–14.
Vozzi, C R, Rodriguez, A O, Paolantonio, D, Smith, J A, Wholey, M H. Extracranial carotid angioplasty and stenting. Initial results and short-term follow-up. Texas Heart Institute Journal. 1997; 24:167–72.
Waigand, J, Gross, C M, Uhlich, F, et al. Elective stenting of carotid artery stenosis in patients with severe coronary artery disease. European Heart Journal. 1998; 19:1365–70.
Wallace, R C, Flom, R A, Khayata, M H, et al. The safety and effectiveness of brain arteriovenous malformation embolization using acrylic and particles: The experiences of a single institution. Neurosurgery. 1995; 37:606–15.
Wardlaw, J M, Warlow, C P, Counsell, C. Systematic review of evidence on thrombolytic therapy for acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet. 1997; 350:607–14.
Warkentin, T E, Levine, M N, Hirsh, J, et al. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995; 332:1330–5.
Weitz, J I. Low-molecular-weight heparins. New England Journal of Medicine. 1997; 337:688–98.
Weitz, J I, Hudoba, M, Massel, D, Maraganore, J, Hirsh, J. Clot-bound thrombin is protected from inhibition by heparin-antithrombin III but is susceptible to inactivation by antithrombin III-independent inhibitors. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1990; 86:385–91.
Wholey, M H, Wholey, M H, Jarmolowski, C R, et al. Endovascular stents for carotid artery occlusive disease. Journal of Endovascular Surgery. 1997; 4:326–38.
Wikholm, G, Lundqvist, C, Svendsen, P. Embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Part I – technique, morphology, and complications. Neurosurgery. 1996; 39:448–57.
Wityk, R J, Pessin, M S, Kaplan, R F, Caplan, L R. Serial assessment of acute stroke using the NIH stroke scale. Stroke. 1994; 25:362–5.
Yadav, J S, Roubin, G S, King, P, Iyer, S, Vitek, J. Angioplasty and stenting for restenosis after carotid endarterectomy. Initial experience. Stroke. 1996; 27:2075–9.
Yakes, W F, Krauth, L, Ecklund, J, et al. Ethanol endovascular management of brain arteriovenous malformations: Initial results. Neurosurgery. 1997; 40:1145–52.
Yalamanchili, K, Rosenwasser, R H, Thomas, J E, et al. Frequency of cerebral vasospasm in patients treated with endovascular occlusion of intracranial aneurysms. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1998; 19:553–8.
CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet. 1996; 348:1329–39.
Ansara, A J, Shiltz, D L, Slavens, J B. Use of cilostazol for secondary stroke prevention: An old dog with new tricks? Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2012; 46:394402.
Gotoh, F, Tohgi, H, Hirai, S, et al. Cilostazol stroke prevention study: A placebo-controlled double-blind trial for secondary prevention of cerebral infarction. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2000; 9:147–57.
Dinicolantonio, J J, Lavie, C J, Fares, H, et al. Meta-analysis of cilostazol versus aspirin for the secondary prevention of stroke. American Journal of Cardiology. 2013; 112:1230–4.
Kamal, A K, Naqvi, I, Husain, M R, Khealani, B A. Cilostazol versus aspirin for secondary prevention of vascular events after stroke of arterial origin. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011; CD008076.
Ikeda, Y. Antiplatelet therapy using cilostazol, a specific PPE3 inhibitor. Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 1999; 82:435–8.
Jeng, J S, Sun, Y, Lee, J T, et al. The efficacy and safety of cilostazol in ischemic stroke patients with peripheral arterial disease (SPAD): Protocol of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. International Journal of Stroke. 2015; 10:123–7.
Lefkovits, J, Plow, E F, Topol, E J. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptors in cardiovascular medicine. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995; 332:1553–9.
PRISM-PLUS study investigators. Inhibition of the platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor with tirofiban in unstable angina and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. Platelet receptor inhibition in ischemic syndrome management in patients limited by unstable signs and symptoms (PRISM-PLUS). New England Journal of Medicine. 1998; 338:1488–97.
Ciccone, A, Motto, C, Abraha, I, Cozzolino, F, Santilli, I. Glycoprotein IIb-IIIa inhibitors for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014; 3:CD005208.
Adams, H P Jr., Effron, M B, Torner, J, et al. Emergency administration of abciximab for treatment of patients with acute ischemic stroke: Results of an international phase III trial: Abciximab in emergency treatment of stroke trial (ABESTT-II). Stroke. 2008; 39:8799.
Velat, G J, Burry, M V, Eskioglu, E, et al. The use of abciximab in the treatment of acute cerebral thromboembolic events during neuroendovascular procedures. Surgical Neurology. 2006; 65:352–8.
Siebler, M, Hennerici, M G, Schneider, D, et al. Safety of tirofiban in acute ischemic stroke: The SATIS trial. Stroke. 2011; 42:2388–92.
Kellert, L, Hametner, C, Rohde, S, et al. Endovascular stroke therapy: Tirofiban is associated with risk of fatal intracerebral hemorrhage and poor outcome. Stroke. 2013; 44:1453–5.
Cannon, C P. Oral platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor inhibitors – part I. Clinical Cardiology. 2003; 26:358–64.
Second, S I. Randomized trial of aspirin, sibrafiban, or both for secondary prevention after acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2001; 103:1727–33.
Cannon, C P, McCabe, C H, Wilcox, R G, et al. Oral glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibition with orbofiban in patients with unstable coronary syndromes (OPUS-TIMI 16) trial. Circulation. 2000; 102:149–56.
O’Neill, W W, Serruys, P, Knudtson, M, et al. Long-term treatment with a platelet glycoprotein-receptor antagonist after percutaneous coronary revascularization. EXCITE trial investigators. Evaluation of oral xemilofiban in controlling thrombotic events. New England Journal of Medicine. 2000; 342:1316–24.
Mousa, S A, Khurana, S, Forsythe, M S. Comparative in vitro efficacy of different platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists on platelet-mediated clot strength induced by tissue factor with use of thromboelastography: Differentiation among glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2000; 20:1162–7.
The SYMPHONY investigators. Comparison of sibrafiban with aspirin for prevention of cardiovascular events after acute coronary syndromes: A randomised trial. Sibrafiban versus aspirin to yield maximum protection from ischemic heart events post-acute coronary syndromes. Lancet. 2000; 355:337–45.
Chew, D P, Bhatt, D L, Sapp, S, Topol, E J. Increased mortality with oral platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists: A meta-analysis of phase III multicenter randomized trials. Circulation. 2001; 103:201–6.
Saw, J, Bajzer, C, Casserly, I P, et al. Evaluating the optimal activated clotting time during carotid artery stenting. American Journal of Cardiology. 2006; 97:1657–60.
Batchelor, W B, Mahaffey, K W, Berger, P B, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of enoxaparin after high-risk coronary stenting: The ATLAST trial. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2001; 38:1608–13.
Hassan, A E, Memon, M Z, Georgiadis, A L, et al. Safety and tolerability of high-intensity anticoagulation with bivalirudin during neuroendovascular procedures. Neurocritical Care. 2011; 15:96100.
Zidar, J P. Rationale for low-molecular weight heparin in coronary stenting. American Heart Journal. 1997; 134:S8187.
McDougall, C G, Johnston, S C, Gholkar, A, et al. Bioactive versus bare platinum coils in the treatment of intracranial aneurysms: The MAPS (matrix and platinum science) trial. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2014; 35:935–42.
Molyneux, A J, Clarke, A, Sneade, M, et al. Cerecyte coil trial: Angiographic outcomes of a prospective randomized trial comparing endovascular coiling of cerebral aneurysms with either cerecyte or bare platinum coils. Stroke. 2012; 43:2544–50.
Coley, S, Sneade, M, Clarke, A, et al. Cerecyte coil trial: Procedural safety and clinical outcomes in patients with ruptured and unruptured intracranial aneurysms. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2012; 33:474–80.
Butteriss, D, Gholkar, A, Mitra, D, Birchall, D, Jayakrishnan, V. Single-center experience of cerecyte coils in the treatment of intracranial aneurysms: Initial experience and early follow-up results. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008; 29:53–5.
Kallmes, D F, Ding, Y H, Dai, D, et al. A new endoluminal, flow-disrupting device for treatment of saccular aneurysms. Stroke. 2007; 38:2346–52.
Nelson, P K, Lylyk, P, Szikora, I, et al. The pipeline embolization device for the intracranial treatment of aneurysms trial. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2011; 32:3440.
De Vries, J, Boogaarts, J, Van Norden, A, Wakhloo, A K. New generation of flow diverter (surpass) for unruptured intracranial aneurysms: A prospective single-center study in 37 patients. Stroke. 2013; 44:1567–77.
Darsaut, T E, Bing, F, Makoyeva, A, et al. Flow diversion to treat aneurysms: The free segment of stent. Journal of Neurointerventional Surgery. 2013; 5:452–7.
Augsburger, L, Farhat, M, Reymond, P, et al. Effect of flow diverter porosity on intraaneurysmal blood flow. Klinische Neuroradiologie. 2009; 19:204–14.
Walcott, B P, Pisapia, J M, Nahed, B V, Kahle, K T, Ogilvy, C S. Early experience with flow diverting endoluminal stents for the treatment of intracranial aneurysms. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2011; 18:891–4.
McAuliffe, W, Wycoco, V, Rice, H, et al. Immediate and midterm results following treatment of unruptured intracranial aneurysms with the pipeline embolization device. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2012; 33:164–70.
Stabile, E, Salemme, L, Sorropago, G, et al. Proximal endovascular occlusion for carotid artery stenting: Results from a prospective registry of 1,300 patients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2010; 55:1661–7.
Ang, L, Mahmud, E. Monitoring oral antiplatelet therapy: Is it justified? Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease. 2008; 2:485–96.
Smith, J W, Steinhubl, S R, Lincoff, A M, et al. Rapid platelet-function assay: An automated and quantitative cartridge-based method. Circulation. 1999; 99:620–5.
Antman, E M, Wiviott, S D, Murphy, S A, et al. Early and late benefits of prasugrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: A triton-timi 38 (trial to assess improvement in therapeutic outcomes by optimizing platelet inhibition with prasugrel-thrombolysis in myocardial infarction) analysis. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2008; 51:2028–33.
Steinhubl, S R, Talley, J D, Braden, G A, et al. Point-of-care measured platelet inhibition correlates with a reduced risk of an adverse cardiac event after percutaneous coronary intervention: Results of the GOLD (AU-Assessing Ultegra) multicenter study. Circulation. 2001; 103:2572–8.
Helena Laboratories. 2015
Simon, D I, Liu, C B, Ganz, P, et al. A comparative study of light transmission aggregometry and automated bedside platelet function assays in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention and receiving abciximab, eptifibatide, or tirofiban. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 2001; 52:425–32.
Mukherjee, D, Chew, D P, Robbins, M, et al. Clinical application of procedural platelet monitoring during percutaneous coronary intervention among patients at increased bleeding risk. Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis. 2001; 11:151–4.
Pandya, D J, Fitzsimmons, B F, Wolfe, T J, et al. Measurement of antiplatelet inhibition during neurointerventional procedures: The effect of antithrombotic duration and loading dose. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2010; 20:64–9.
Lee, D H, Arat, A, Morsi, H, et al. Dual antiplatelet therapy monitoring for neurointerventional procedures using a point-of-care platelet function test: A single-center experience. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008; 29:1389–94.
Hill, M D, Martin, R H, Mikulis, D, et al. Safety and efficacy of NA-1 in patients with iatrogenic stroke after endovascular aneurysm repair (ENACT): A phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. Neurology. 2012; 11:942–50.
Qureshi, A I, Luft, A R, Sharma, M, et al. Prevention and treatment of thromboembolic and ischemic complications associated with endovascular procedures: Part II – clinical aspects and recommendations. Neurosurgery. 2000; 46:1360–75.
Qureshi, A I, Janardhan, V, Memon, M Z, et al. Initial experience in establishing an academic neuroendovascular service: Program building, procedural types, and outcomes. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2009; 19:72–9.
Silver, F L, Mackey, A, Clark, W M, et al. Safety of stenting and endarterectomy by symptomatic status in the carotid revascularization endarterectomy versus stenting trial (CREST). Stroke. 2011; 42:675–80.
Bonati, L H, Jongen, L M, Haller, S, et al. New ischaemic brain lesions on MRI after stenting or endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis: A substudy of the International Carotid Stenting Study (ICSS). Lancet. Neurology. 2010; 9:353–62.
Economopoulos, K P, Sergentanis, T N, Tsivgoulis, G, Mariolis, A D, Stefanadis, C. Carotid artery stenting versus carotid endarterectomy: A comprehensive meta-analysis of short-term and long-term outcomes. Stroke. 2011; 42:687–92.
Halliday, A, Mansfield, A, Marro, J, et al. Prevention of disabling and fatal strokes by successful carotid endarterectomy in patients without recent neurological symptoms: Randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004; 363:1491–502.
Rothwell, P M, Eliasziw, M, Gutnikov, S A, et al. Analysis of pooled data from the randomised controlled trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Lancet. 2003; 361:107–16.
Yadav, J S, Wholey, M H, Kuntz, R E, et al. Protected carotid-artery stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004; 351:1493–501.
Mas, J L, Chatellier, G, Beyssen, B, EVA-35 Investigators. Carotid angioplasty and stenting with and without cerebral protection: Clinical alert from the Endarterectomy Versus Angioplasty in Patients with Symptomatic Severe Carotid Stenosis (EVA-3S) Trial. Stroke. 2004; 35:e1820.
Matsumura, J S, Gray, W, Chaturvedi, S, et al. Results of carotid artery stenting with distal embolic protection with improved systems: Protected Carotid Artery Stenting in Patients at High Risk for Carotid Endarterectomy (PROTECT) Trial. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2012; 55:968–76.
Myla, S, Bacharach, J M, Ansel, G M, et al. Carotid artery stenting in high surgical risk patients using the fibernet embolic protection system: The EPIC trial results. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 2010; 75:817–22.
Higashida, R T, Popma, J J, Apruzzese, P, Zimetbaum, P; MAVErIC I and II Investigators. Evaluation of the Medtronic exponent self-expanding carotid stent system with the Medtronic guardwire temporary occlusion and aspiration system in the treatment of carotid stenosis: Combined from the MAVErIC (Medtronic AVE self-expanding carotid stent system with distal protection in the treatment of carotid stenosis) I and MAVErIC II trials. Stroke. 2010; 41:e102–9.
Ansel, G M, Hopkins, L N, Jaff, M R, et al. Safety and effectiveness of the INVATEC MO.MA proximal cerebral protection device during carotid artery stenting: Results from the ARMOUR pivotal trial. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 2010; 76:18.
Ohki, T, Parodi, J, Veith, F J, et al. Efficacy of a proximal occlusion catheter with reversal of flow in the prevention of embolic events during carotid artery stenting: An experimental analysis. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2001; 33:504–9.
Harada, K, Kakumoto, K, Morioka, J, Saito, T, Fukuyama, K. Combination of flow reversal and distal filter for cerebral protection during carotid artery stenting. Annals of Vascular Surgery. 2014; 28:651–8.
Cano, M N, Kambara, A M, de Cano, S J, et al. Randomized comparison of distal and proximal cerebral protection during carotid artery stenting. Cardiovascular Interventions. 2013; 6:1203–9.
Stabile, E, Sannino, A, Schiattarella, G G, et al. Cerebral embolic lesions detected with diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging following carotid artery stenting: A meta-analysis of 8 studies comparing filter cerebral protection and proximal balloon occlusion. Cardiovascular Interventions. 2014; 7:1177–83.
Bersin, R M, Stabile, E, Ansel, G M, et al. A meta-analysis of proximal occlusion device outcomes in carotid artery stenting. Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 2012; 80:1072–8.
Dalainas, I, Nano, G, Bianchi, P, et al. Dual antiplatelet regime versus acetyl-acetic acid for carotid artery stenting. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology. 2006; 29:519–21.
McKevitt, F M, Randall, M S, Cleveland, T J, et al. The benefits of combined anti-platelet treatment in carotid artery stenting. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2005; 29:522–7.
Van Der Heyden, J, Van Werkum, J, Hackeng, C M, et al. High versus standard clopidogrel loading in patients undergoing carotid artery stenting prior to cardiac surgery to assess the number of microemboli detected with transcranial Doppler: Results of the randomized IMPACT trial. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery. 2013; 54:337–47.
Nakagawa, I, Wada, T, Park, H S, et al. Platelet inhibition by adjunctive cilostazol suppresses the frequency of cerebral ischemic lesions after carotid artery stenting in patients with carotid artery stenosis. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2014; 59:761–7.
Zahn, R, Ischinger, T, Hochadel, M, et al. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists during carotid artery stenting: Results from the Carotid Artery Stenting (CAS) registry of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Leitende Kardiologische Krankenhausarzte (ALKK). Clinical Research in Cardiology. 2007; 96:730–7.
Hofmann, R, Kerschner, K, Steinwender, C, et al. Abciximab bolus injection does not reduce cerebral ischemic complications of elective carotid artery stenting: A randomized study. Stroke. 2002; 33:725–7.
Qureshi, A I, Suri, M F, Ali, Z, et al. Carotid angioplasty and stent placement: A prospective analysis of perioperative complications and impact of intravenously administered abciximab. Neurosurgery. 2002; 50:466–73.
Walcott, B P, Gerrard, J L, Nogueira, R G, et al. Microsurgical retrieval of an endovascular microcatheter trapped during onyx embolization of a cerebral arteriovenous malformation. Journal of Neurointerventional Surgery. 2011; 3:77–9.
Huk, W, Becker, H. [Complication after embolization of an AVM with onyx]. Klinische Neuroradiologie. 2009; 19:145–52.
Chimowitz, M I, Lynn, M J, Derdeyn, C P, et al. Stenting versus aggressive medical therapy for intracranial arterial stenosis. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011; 365:9931003.
Siddiq, F, Chaudhry, S A, Khatri, R, et al. Rate of postprocedural stroke and death in SAMMPRIS trial-eligible patients treated with intracranial angioplasty and/or stent placement in practice. Neurosurgery. 2012; 71:6873.
Qureshi, A I, Abou-Chebl, A, Jovin, T G. Qualification requirements for performing neurointerventional procedures: A report of the Practice Guidelines Committee of the American Society of Neuroimaging and the Society of Vascular and Interventional Neurology. Journal of Neuroimaging. 2008; 18:433–47.

References

Moniz, E. L’encéphalographie artérielle, son importance dans la localisation des tumeurs cérébrales. Revue Neurologique. 1927; 2:63.
Kaufmann, T J, Kallmes, D F. Diagnostic cerebral angiography: Archaic and complication-prone or here to stay for another 80 years? American Journal of Roentgenology. 2008; 190:1435–7.
Kallmes, D F, Layton, K, Marx, W F, Tong, F. Death by nondiagnosis: why emergent CT angiography should not be done for patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2007; 28:1837–8.
Dion, J E, Gates, P C, Fox, A J, Barnett, H J, Blom, R J. Clinical events following neuroangiography: a prospective study. Stroke. 1987; 18:9971004.
Warnock, N G, Gandhi, M R, Bergvall, U, Powell, T. Complications of intraarterial digital subtraction angiography in patients investigated for cerebral vascular disease. British Journal of Radiology. 1993; 66:855–8.
Earnest, F T, Forbes, G, Sandok, B A, et al. Complications of cerebral angiography: prospective assessment of risk. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1984; 142:247–53.
Kaufmann, T J, Huston, J 3rd, Mandrekar, J N, et al. of diagnostic cerebral angiography: evaluation of 19,826 consecutive patients. Radiology. 2007; 243:812–19.
Olivecrona, H. Complications of cerebral angiography. Neuroradiology. 1977; 14:175–81.
Thiex, R, Norbash, A M, Frerichs, K U. et al. The safety of dedicated-team catheter-based diagnostic cerebral angiography in the era of advanced noninvasive imaging. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2010; 31:230–4.
Willinsky, R A, Taylor, S M, TerBrugge, K, et al. Neurologic complications of cerebral angiography: prospective analysis of 2,899 procedures and review of the literature. Radiology. 2003; 227:522–8.
Baum, S, Stein, G N, Kuroda, K K. Complications of “no arteriography”. Radiology. 1966; 86:835–8.
Dawkins, A A, Evans, A L, Wattam, J, et al. Complications of cerebral angiography: a prospective analysis of 2,924 consecutive procedures. Neuroradiology. 2007; 49:753–9.
Mani, R L, Eisenberg, R L. Complications of catheter cerebral arteriography: analysis of 5,000 procedures. III. Assessment of arteries injected, contrast medium used, duration of procedure, and age of patient. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1978; 131:871–4.
Mani, R L, Eisenberg, R L. Complications of catheter cerebral arteriography: analysis of 5,000 procedures. II. Relation of complication rates to clinical and arteriographic diagnoses. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1978; 131:867–9.
Mani, R L, Eisenberg, R L, McDonald, E J Jr., Pollock, J A, Mani, J R. Complications of catheter cerebral arteriography: analysis of 5,000 procedures. I. Criteria and incidence. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1978; 131:861–5.
Waugh, J R, Sacharias, N. Arteriographic complications in the DSA era. Radiology. 1992; 182:243–6.
Pohler, E, Gunther, H, Diekmann, M, Eggeling, T. Outpatient coronary angiography–safety and feasibility. Cardiology. 1994; 84:305–9.
Cloft, H J, Joseph, G J, Dion, J E. Risk of cerebral angiography in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral aneurysm, and arteriovenous malformation: a meta-analysis. Stroke. 1999; 30:317–20.
Heiserman, J E, Dean, B L, Hodak, J A, et al. Neurologic complications of cerebral angiography. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1994; 15:1401–7.
Dagirmanjian, A, Davis, D A, Rothfus, W E, Deeb, Z L, Goldberg, A L. Silent cerebral microemboli occurring during carotid angiography: frequency as determined with Doppler sonography. American Journal of Roentgenology. 1993; 161:1037–40.
Markus, H, Loh, A, Israel, D, et al. Microscopic air embolism during cerebral angiography and strategies for its avoidance. Lancet. 1993; 341:784–7.
Gerraty, R P, Bowser, D N, Infeld, B, Mitchell, P J, Davis, S M. Microemboli during carotid angiography. Association with stroke risk factors or subsequent magnetic resonance imaging changes? Stroke. 1996; 27:1543–7.
Mamourian, A, Drayer, B P. Clinically silent infarcts shown by MR after cerebral angiography. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 1990; 11:1084.
Bendszus, M, Koltzenburg, M, Burger, R, et al. Silent embolism in diagnostic cerebral angiography and neurointerventional procedures: a prospective study. Lancet. 1999; 354:1594–7.
Chuah, K C, Stuckey, S L, Berman, I G. Silent embolism in diagnostic cerebral angiography: detection with diffusion-weighted imaging. Australasian Radiology. 2004; 48:133–8.
Hahnel, S, Bender, J, Jansen, O, et al. [Clinically silent cerebral embolisms after cerebral catheter angiography]. Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Rontgenstrahlen und der Nuklearmedizin. 2001; 173:300–5.
Kato, K, Tomura, N, Takahashi, S, Sakuma, I, Watarai, J. Ischemic lesions related to cerebral angiography: Evaluation by diffusion weighted MR imaging. Neuroradiology. 2003; 45:3943.
Krings, T, Willmes, K, Becker, R, et al. Silent microemboli related to diagnostic cerebral angiography: a matter of operator’s experience and patient’s disease. Neuroradiology. 2006; 48:387–93.
Bendszus, M, Koltzenburg, M, Bartsch, A J, et al. Heparin and air filters reduce embolic events caused by intra-arterial cerebral angiography: a prospective, randomized trial. Circulation. 2004; 110:2210–15.
Bendszus, M, Stoll, G. Silent cerebral ischaemia: hidden fingerprints of invasive medical procedures. Lancet Neurology. 2006; 5:364–72.
Bendszus, M, Reents, W, Franke, D, et al. Brain damage after coronary artery bypass grafting. Archives of Neurology. 2002; 59:1090–5.
Knipp, S C, Matatko, N, Wilhelm, H, et al. Evaluation of brain injury after coronary artery bypass grafting. A prospective study using neuropsychological assessment and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 2004; 25:791800.
Lund, C, Nes, R B, Ugelstad, T P, et al. Cerebral emboli during left heart catheterization may cause acute brain injury. European Heart Journal. 2005; 26:1269–75.
Lund, C, Sundet, K, Tennoe, B, et al. Cerebral ischemic injury and cognitive impairment after off-pump and on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 2005; 80:2126–31.
Restrepo, L, Wityk, R J, Grega, M A, et al. Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the brain before and after coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Stroke. 2002; 33:2909–15.
Brockmann, C, Hoefer, T, Diepers, M, et al. Abciximab does not prevent ischemic lesions related to cerebral angiography: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Cerebrovascular Disease. 2011; 31:353–7.
Wolfe, T J, Hussain, S I, Lynch, J R, Fitzsimmons, B F, Zaidat, O O. Pediatric cerebral angiography: analysis of utilization and findings. Pediatric Neurology. 2009; 40:98101.
Burger, I M, Murphy, K J, Jordan, L C, Tamargo, R J, Gailloud, P. Safety of cerebral digital subtraction angiography in children: complication rate analysis in 241 consecutive diagnostic angiograms. Stroke. 2006; 37:2535–9.
Hoffman, C E, Santillan, A, Rotman, L, Gobin, Y P, Souweidane, M M. Complications of cerebral angiography in children younger than 3 years of age: clinical article. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics. 2014; 13:414–19.

References

Gottesman, R F, McKhann, G, Hogue, C V. Neurological complications of cardiac surgery. Semin Neurol. 2008; 703–15.
Karalis, D G, Quinn, V, Victor, M F, et al. Risk of catheter-related emboli in patients with atherosclerotic debris in the thoracic aorta. Am Heart J. 1996; 131(6):1149–55.
Eggebrecht, H, Oldenburg, O, Dirsch, O et al. Potential embolization by atherosclerotic debris dislodged from aortic wall during cardiac catheterization: histological and clinical findings in 7,621 patients. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2000; 49(4):389–94.
Qureshi, A I, Luft, A R, Sharma, M, Guterman, L R, Hopkins, L N. Prevention and treatment of thromboembolic and ischemic complications associated with endovascular procedures: Part I – Pathophysiological and pharmacological features. Neurosurgery. 2000; 46(6):1344–59.
Hoffman, S J, Holmes, D R Jr, Rabinstein, A A, et al. Trends, predictors, and outcomes of cerebrovascular events related to percutaneous coronary intervention: A 16-year single-center experience. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2011; 4(4):415–22.
Lund, C, Nes, R B, Ugelstad, T P, et al. Cerebral emboli during left heart catheterization may cause acute brain injury. Eur Heart J. 2005; 26(13):1269–75.
Keeley, E C, Grines, C L. Scraping of aortic debris by coronary guiding catheters: A prospective evaluation of 1,000 cases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 32(7):1861–5.
Hilliard, A A, From, A M, Lennon, R J, et al. Percutaneous revascularization for stable coronary artery disease temporal trends and impact of drug-eluting stents. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2010; 3(2):172–9.
Dukkipati, S, O’Neill, W W, Harjai, K J, et al. Characteristics of cerebrovascular accidents after percutaneous coronary interventions. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 43(7):1161–7.
Aggarwal, A, Dai, D, Rumsfeld, J S, Klein, L W, Roe, M T. Incidence and predictors of stroke associated with percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol. 2009; 104(3):349–53.
Hoffman, S J, Routledge, H C, Lennon, R J, et al. Procedural factors associated with percutaneous coronary intervention-related ischemic stroke. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2012; 5(2):200–6.
Cappato, R, Calkins, H, Chen, S A, et al. Updated worldwide survey on the methods, efficacy, and safety of catheter ablation for human atrial fibrillation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010; 3(1):32–8.
Maan, A, Shaikh, A Y, Mansour, M, Ruskin, J N, Heist, E K. Complications from catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: a systematic review. Crit Pathw Cardiol. 2011; 10(2):7683.
Haeusler, K G, Kirchhof, P, Endres, M. Left atrial catheter ablation and ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2012; 43(1):265–70.
Haeusler, K G, Koch, L, Herm, J, et al. 3 Tesla MRI-detected brain lesions after pulmonary vein isolation for atrial fibrillation: results of the MACPAF study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2013; 24(1):1421.
Oral, H, Chugh, A, Ozaydin, M, et al. Risk of thromboembolic events after percutaneous left atrial radiofrequency ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 2006; 114(8):759–65.
Lemola, K, Desjardins, B, Sneider, M, et al. Effect of left atrial circumferential ablation for atrial fibrillation on left atrial transport function. Heart Rhythm. 2005; 2(9):923–8.
Di Biase, L, Burkhardt, J D, Mohanty, P, et al. Periprocedural stroke and management of major bleeding complications in patients undergoing catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: the impact of periprocedural therapeutic international normalized ratio. Circulation. 2010; 121(23):2550–6.
Rastegar, R, Harnick, D J, Weidemann, P, et al. Spontaneous echo contrast videodensity is flow-related and is dependent on the relative concentrations of fibrinogen and red blood cells. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41(4):603–10.
Ren, J F, Marchlinski, F E, Callans, D J. Left atrial thrombus associated with ablation for atrial fibrillation: identification with intracardiac echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 43(10):1861–7.
Ren, J F, Marchlinski, F E, Callans, D J, et al. Increased intensity of anticoagulation may reduce risk of thrombus during atrial fibrillation ablation procedures in patients with spontaneous echo contrast. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2005; 16(5):474–7.
Handke, M, Harloff, A, Olschewski, M, Hetzel, A, Geibel, A. Patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic stroke in older patients. N Engl J Med. 2007; 357(22):2262–8.
Furlan, A J, Reisman, M, Massaro, J, et al. Closure or medical therapy for cryptogenic stroke with patent foramen ovale. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366(11):991–9.
Carroll, J D, Saver, J L, Thaler, D E, et al. Closure of patent foramen ovale versus medical therapy after cryptogenic stroke. N Engl J Med. 2013; 368(12):1092–100.
Meier, B, Kalesan, B, Mattle, H P, et al. Percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale in cryptogenic embolism. N Engl J Med. 2013; 368(12):1083–91.
Dowson, A, Mullen, M J, Peatfield, R, et al. Migraine Intervention with STARFlex Technology (MIST) trial: a prospective, multicenter, double-blind, sham-controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of patent foramen ovale closure with STARFlex septal repair implant to resolve refractory migraine headache. Circulation. 2008; 117(11):1397–404.
Khairy, P, O’Donnell, C P, Landzberg, M J. Transcatheter closure versus medical therapy of patent foramen ovale and presumed paradoxical thromboemboli: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2003; 139(9):753–60.
Ricotta, J J, Faggioli, G L, Castilone, A, Hassett, J M. Risk factors for stroke after cardiac surgery. J Vasc Surg. 1995; 21:359–64.
Roach, G W, Kanchuger, M, Mora-Mangano, C, et al. Adverse cerebral outcomes after coronary bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 1996; 335:1857–63.
Hogue, C W, Murphy, S F, Schechtman, K B, Davilla-Roman, V G. Risk factors for early or delayed stroke after cardiac surgery. Circulation. 1999; 100:642–7.
Almassi, G H, Sommers, T, Moritz, T E, et al. Stroke in cardiac surgical patients: determinants and outcome. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999; 68:391–8.
Tarakji, K G, Sabik, JF III, Bhudia, S K, Batzy, L H, Blackstone, E H. Temporal onset, risk factors, and outcomes associated with stroke after coronary artery bypass grafting. JAMA. 2011; 305:381–90.
Selnes, O A, Gottesman, R F, Grega, M A, et al. Cognitive and neurologic outcomes after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366:250–7.
Raja, S G, Berg, G A. Impact of off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery on systemic inflammation: Current best available evidence. J Card Surg. 2007; 22:445–55.
Gottesman, R F, Sherman, P M, Grega, M A et al. Watershed strokes after cardiac surgery: diagnosis, etiology and outcome. Stroke. 2006; 37:2306–11.
Caplan, L R, Hennerici, M. Impaired clearance of emboli (washout) is an important link between hypoperfusion, embolism, and ischemic stroke. Arch Neurol. 1998; 55:1475–82.
Hedberg, M, Boivie, P, Engström, K G. Early and late stroke after coronary surgery: An analysis of risk factors and the impact of short-term and long-term survival. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2011; 40:379–87.
McKhann, G M, Grega, M A, Borowicz, L M Jr, Baumgartner, W A, Selnes, O A. Stroke and encephalopathy after cardiac surgery. An update. Stroke. 2006; 37:562–71.
Karkouti, K, Djalani, G, Borger, M A, et al. Low hematocrit during cardiopulmonary bypass is associated with increased risk of perioperative stroke in cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005; 80:1381–7.
Goto, T, Baba, T, Honma, K, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging findings and postoperative neurologic dysfunction in elderly patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 72:137–42.
Selnes, O A, Gottesman, R F, Grega, M A, et al. Cognitive and neurologic outcomes after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366:250–7.
Shroyer, A L, Grower, F L, Hattler, B, et al. On-pump vs. off-pump coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361:1827–37.
Møller, C H, Perko, M J, Lund, J T, et al. No major differences in 30-day outcomes in high-risk patients randomized to off-pump vs. on-pump coronary bypass surgery. The Best Bypass Surgery Trial. Circulation. 2010; 121:498504.
Nishijama, K, Horiguchi, M, Shizuta, S, et al. Temporal pattern of strokes after on-pump and off-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009; 87:1839–44.
Bouchard, D, Carrier, M, Demers, P, et al. Statins in combination with beta-blocker therapy reduces postoperative stroke after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011; 91:654–9.
Mangano, D T. Aspirin and mortality from coronary bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347:1309–17.
Leon, M B, Smith, C R, Mack, M, et al. Transcatheter aortic valve implantation for aortic stenosis in patients who cannot undergo surgery. N Engl J Med. 2010; 363:1597–607.
Smith, C R, Leon, M B, Mack, M J, et al. Transcatheter versus surgical aortic valve replacement in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2011; 364:2187–98.
Thomas, M, Schymik, G, Walther, T, et al. Thirty-day results of the SAPIEN aortic Bioprosthesis European Outcome (SOURCE) registry: A European registry of transcatheter aortic valve implantation using the Edwards SAPIEN valve. Circulation. 2010; 122:62–9.
Walther, T, Kasimir, M T, Doss, M, et al. One-year interim follow-up of the TRAVERSE trial: the initial feasibility study for transapical aortic valve implantation. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010; 39:532–7.
Svenson, L G, Dewey, T, Kapadia, S, et al. United States feasibility study of transcatheter insertion of a stented aortic valve by the left ventricular apex. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008; 86:4655.
Piazza, N, Grube, E, Gerckens, U, et al. Procedural and 30-day outcomes following transcatheter aortic valve implantation using the third generation (18 Fr) CoreValve revalving system: results from the multicentre, expanded evaluation registry 1-year following CE mark approval. EuroIntervention. 2008; 4:242–9.
Petronio, A S, De Carlo, M, Bedogni, F, et al. Safety and efficacy of the subclavian approach for transcatheter aortic valve implantation with the CoreValve Revalving system. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2010; 3:359–66.
Zahn, R, Gerckens, U, Grube, E, et al. Transcatheter aortic valve implantation: first results from a multi-centre real-world registry. Eur Heart J. 2011; 32:198204.
Arnold, M, Schulz-Heise, S, Achenbach, S, et al. Embolic cerebral insults after transapical aortic valve implantation detected by magnetic resonance imaging. JACC Cardiovasc Int. 2010; 3:1126–32.
Rodes-Cabau, J, Dumont, E, Boone, R H, et al. Cerebral embolism following transcatheter aortic valve implantation: comparison of transfemoral and transapical approaches. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 57:1828.
Kahlert, P, Al-Rashid, F, Döttger, P, et al. Cerebral embolization during transcatheter aortic valve implantation: a transcranial Doppler study. Circulation. 2012; 126:1245–55.
Reinsfelt, B, Wetsrelind, A, Ioanes, D, et al. Transcranial Doppler microembolic signals and serum evidence of brain injury during transcatheter aortic valve implantation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2012; 56:240–7.
Vermeer, S E, Prins, N D, den Heijer, T, et al. Silent brain infarcts and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348:1215–22.
Ben-Dor, I, Pichard, A D, Satler, L F, et al. Complications and outcome of balloon aortic valvuloplasty in high-risk or inoperable patients. J Am Coll Cardiol Intv. 2010; 3:1150–6.
O’Brien, S M, Shahain, D M, Filardo, G, et al. The Society of Thoracic Surgeons 2008 cardiac surgery risk models: Part 2-isolated valve surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009; 88-S23-42.
Ferrari, E, Tozzi, P, Hurni, M, et al. Primary isolated aortic valve surgery in octogenarians. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010; 38:128–33.
Elbardissi, A W, Shekar, P, Couper, G S, Cohn, L H. Minimally invasive aortic valve replacement in octogenarian, high-risk, transcatheter aortic valve implantation candidates. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010; 141:328–35.
Leon, M B, Piazza, N, Nikolsky, E, et al. Standardized endpoint definitions for transcatheter aortic valve implantation clinical trials. A consensus report from the valve academic research consortium. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 57:253–69.
Daneault, B, Kirtane, A J, Kodali, S K, et al. Stroke associated with surgical and transcatheter treatment of aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 58:2143–50.
Drews, T, Pasic, M, Bus, S, et al. Transcranial Doppler sound detection of cerebral microembolism during transapical aortic valve implantation. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011; 59:237–42.
van der Linden, J, Casimir-Ahn, H. When do cerebral emboli appear during open heart operation? A Transcranial Doppler study. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991; 51:237–41.
Guerrieri Wolf, L, Choudhary, B P, Abu-Omar, Y, Taggert, D P. Solid and gaseous cerebral microembolization after biologic and mechanical aortic valve replacement: investigation with multirange and multifrequency transcranial Doppler ultrasound. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2008; 135:512–20.
Filsoufi, F, Rahmanian, P B, Castillo, J G, Bronster, D, Adams, D H. Incidence, imaging analysis, and early and late outcomes of stroke after cardiac valve operation. Am J Cardiol. 2008; 101:1472–8.
Sharony, R, Grossi, E A, Saunders, P C, et al. Aortic valve replacement in patients with impaired ventricular function. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 75:1808–14.
Ruel, M, Masters, R G, Rubens, F D, et al. Late incidence and determinants of stroke after aortic and mitral valve replacement. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004; 78:7784.
Sundt, T M, Bailey, M S, Moon, M R, et al. Quality of life after aortic valve replacement at the age of >80 years. Circulation. 2000; 102:III70–4.
Alexander, K P, Anstrom, K J, Muhlbaier, L H, et al. Outcomes of cardiac surgery in patients > or = 80 years: Results from the National Cardiovascular Network. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35:731–8.
Naylor, A R, Mehta, Z, Rothwell, P M, Bell, P R. Carotid artery disease and stroke during coronary artery bypass: a critical review of the literature. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2002; 23:283–94.
Li, Y, Walicki, D, Mathiesen, C, Jenny, D, et al. Strokes after cardiac surgery and relationship to carotid stenosis. Arch Neurol. 2009; 66:1091–6.
Naylor, A R. Does the risk of post-CABG stroke merit staged or synchronous reconstruction in patients with symptomatic or asymptomatic carotid disease? J Cardiovasc Surg. 2009; 50:7181.
Timaran, C H, Rosero, E B, Smith, S T, et al. Trends and outcomes of concurrent carotid revascularization and coronary bypass. J Vasc Surg. 2008; 48:355–61.
Knipp, S C, Scherag, A, Beyersdorf, F, et al. for the CABACS study group. Randomized comparison of synchronous CABG and carotid endarterectomy vs. isolated CABG in patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis: The CABACS trial. Int J Stroke. 2012; 7:354–60.

References

Eastcott, H H G, Pickering, G W, Rob, C G. Reconstruction of internal carotid artery in a patient with intermittent attacks of hemiplegia. Lancet. 1954; ii:954.
North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325:445–53.
European Carotid Surgery Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of endarterectomy for recently symptomatic carotid stenosis: final results of the MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST). Lancet. 1998; 351:1379–87.
Barnett, H J, Taylor, D W, Eliasziw, M, et al. Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339:1415–25.
Executive Committee of the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. JAMA. 1995; 273:1421–8.
Ferguson, G G, Eliasziw, M, Barr, H W, et al. The North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial: surgical results in 1415 patients. Stroke. 1999; 30:1751–8.
Chaturvedi, S, Aggarwal, R, Murugappan, A. Results of carotid endarterectomy with prospective neurologist follow-up. Neurology. 2000; 26:55:769–72.
Spencer, M P. Transcranial Doppler monitoring and causes of stroke from carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1997; 28:685–91.
Huibers, A, Calvet, D, Kennedy, F, et al. Mechanism of procedural stroke following carotid endarterectomy or carotid artery stenting within the International Carotid Stenting Study (ICSS) randomised trial. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2015; doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2015.05.017. [Epub ahead of print].
Sundt, T M. The ischemic tolerance of neural tissue and the need for monitoring and selective shunting during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1983; 14:93–8.
Sharbrough, F M, Messik, J M, Sundt, T M. Correlation of continuous electroencephalograms with cerebral blood flow measurements during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1973; 4:674–83.
Blackshear, W M, Di Carlo, V, Seifert, K B, Connar, R G. Advantages of continuous electroencephalographic monitoring during carotid surgery. J Cardiovasc Surg. 1986; 27:146–53.
Cho, I, Smullens, S N, Streletz, L J, Fariello, R G. The value of intraoperative EEG monitoring during carotid endarterectomy. Ann Neurol. 1986; 20:508–12.
Blume, W T, Ferguson, G G, McNeil, D K. Significance of EEG changes at carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1986; 17:891–97.
McCarthy, W J, Park, A E, Koushanpour, E, et al. Carotid endarterectomy. Lessons from intraoprative monitoring – a decade of experience. Ann Surg. 1996; 224:291307.
Balotta, E, Daigau, G, Saladini, M, et al. Results of electroencephalographic monitoring during 369 consecutive carotid artery revascularizations. Eur Neurol. 1997; 37:43–7.
Kearse, L A, Brown, E N, McPeck, K. Somatosensory evoked potential sensitivity relative to electroencephalography for cerebral ischemia during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1992; 23:498505.
Haupt, W F, Horsch, S. Evoked potential monitoring in carotid surgery: A review of 994 cases. Neurology. 1992; 42:835–8.
Duncan, L A, Ruckley, C V, Wildsmith, J A W. Cerebral oximetry: a useful monitor during carotid artery surgery. Anesthesiology. 1995; 50:1041–5.
Samra, S K, Dorje, P, Zelenock, G B, Stanley, J C. Cerebral oximetry in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy under regional anesthesia. Stroke. 1996; 27:4955.
Cherry, K J, Roland, C F, Hallett, J W, et al. Stump pressure, the contralateral carotid artery, and electroencephalographic changes. Am J Surg. 1991; 162:185–9.
Harada, R N, Comerota, A J, Good, G M, et al. Stump pressure, electroencephalographic changes, and the contralateral carotid artery: another look at selective shunting. Am J Surg. 1995; 170:148–53.
Benjamin, M E, Silva, M B, Watt, C, et al. Awake patient monitoring to determine the need for shunting during carotid endarterectomy. Surgery. 1993; 114:673–81.
Padayachee, T S, Bishop, C C R, Gosling, R G, et al. Monitoring middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity during carotid endarterectomy. Br J Surg. 1986; 73:98100.
Steiger, H J, Schaffler, L, Boll, J, Liechti, S. Results of microsurgical carotid endarterectomy: a prospective study with transcranial Doppler and EEG monitoring, and selective shunting. Acta Neurochir. 1989; 100:31–8.
Spencer, M P, Thomas, G I, Nicholls, S C, Sauvage, L R. Detection of middle cerebral artery emboli during carotid endarterectomy using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. Stroke. 1990; 21:415–23.
Ackerstaff, R G A, Janes, C, Moll, F L, et al. The significance of emboli detection by means of transcranial Doppler ultrasonography monitoring in carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg. 1995; 21:415–23.
Canthelmo, N L, Babikian, V L, Samaraweera, R N, et al. Cerebral microembolism and ischemic changes associated with carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg. 1998; 27:1024–31.
Arnold, M, Sturzenegger, M, Schaffler, L, Seiler, R. Continuous intraoperative monitoring of middle cerebral artery flow velocities and electroencephalography during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1997; 28:1345–50.
Spencer, M P. Transcranial Doppler monitoring and causes of stroke from carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1997; 28:685–91.
Jansen, C, Ramos, L M, van Heesewijk, J P, et al. Impact of microembolism and hemodynamic changes in the brain during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 1994; 25:992–7.
Ackerstaff, R G, Moons, K G, van de Vlasakker, C J, et al. Association of intraoperative transcranial Doppler monitoring variables with stroke from carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 2000; 31:1817–23.
Babikian, V L, Canthelmo, N L. Cerebrovascular monitoring during carotid endarterectomy. Stroke. 2000; 31:1799–801.
Levy, C R, O’Malley, H M, Fell, G, et al. Transcranial Doppler detected cerebral microembolism following carotid endarterectomy. High intensity signal loads predict postoperative cerebral ischemia. Brain. 1997; 120:621–9.
Kaposzta, Z, Baskerville, P A, Madge, D, et al. L-arginine and S-nitrosoglutathione reduce embolization in humans. Circulation. 2001; 103:2371–5.
Chen, C I, Iguchi, Y, Garami, Z, et al. Analysis of emboli during carotid stenting with distal protection device. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2006; 21(4):223–8.
Zhou, W, Hitchner, E, Gillis, K, et al. Prospective neurocognitive evaluation of patients undergoing carotid interventions. J Vasc Surg. 2012; 56:1571–8.
Garami, Z, Lumsden, A B. Intra-operative and peri-procedural TCD monitoring. In Alexandrov, A V (ed). Cerebrovascular Ultrasound in Stroke Prevention and Treatment (2nd edn). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. 2011.
Garami, Z, Charlton-Ouw, K M, Broadbent, K C, Lumsden, A B. A practical guide to transcranial Doppler monitoring during carotid interventions. Part 1: basics and blood flow changes. Vascular Ultrasound Today. 2008; 13(1).
Gupta, N, Corriere, M A, Dodson, T F, et al. Incidence of microemboli to the brain is less with endarterectomy than with percutaneous revascularization with distal filters or flow reversal. J Vasc Surg. 2011; 53:316–22.
Pennekamp, C W, Moll, F L, De Borst, G J. Role of transcranial Doppler in cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome. J Cardiovasc Surg. 2012; 53:765–71.