The two chapters in this section highlight the important role of social context and feedback provided in experimental teacher–learner setups for social learning and imitation in animals and machines (see Part III, What to imitate, this volume). Moreover, the articles exemplify social learning that occurs across species boundaries, including Grey parrots and a mobile robot, learning from human teachers.

In the first chapter, Irene M. Pepperberg and Diane V. Sherman discuss a particular training procedure called model/rival (M/R) where learning occurs in a triad consisting of the learner, the teacher (principal trainer), and a model/rival who serves as a model for the learner's behaviour and at the same time competes with the learner for the teacher's attention. This procedure comprises role-switch between model/rival and trainer, as well as extensive social interaction including positive and negative effects provided in response to correct or incorrect answers. It has been used very successfully by Pepperberg with Grey parrots, highlighting that the social context and feedback provided during the training sessions are vital for the success of the training. Some aspects of the procedure could be changed without significantly influencing the learning, e.g. adding a bird as another model/rival to the already existing triad. However, birds' abilities to learn decreased when interaction was restricted or removed (e.g. training in audio or video sessions).