Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-546b4f848f-bvkm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2023-06-01T06:03:54.594Z Has data issue: false Feature Flags: { "useRatesEcommerce": true } hasContentIssue false

Chapter 28 - Parasitic Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2017

By
Rhoda Sperling  and
Joseph M. Ernest
Edited by
David James ,
Philip Steer ,
Carl Weiner ,
Bernard Gonik  and
Stephen Robson
David James
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
Philip Steer
Affiliation:
Imperial College London
Carl Weiner
Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Bernard Gonik
Affiliation:
Wayne State University, Detroit
Stephen Robson
Affiliation:
University of Newcastle
Get access

Summary

In the developing world, pregnant women frequently experience a cycle of undernutrition and parasitic infections, resulting in adverse pregnancy outcomes including abortion, malformation, and neonatal death. Although malnutrition in general and parasitic infections specifically are less common in developed countries, no society is immune from their potential effects during pregnancy. Six parasitic infections that have major health, financial, or combined consequences worldwide are Lyme disease, tuberculosis (TB), malaria, syphilis, toxoplasmosis, and schistosomiasis.

Type
Chapter
Information
High-Risk Pregnancy
Management Options
 , pp. 695 - 727
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
First published in: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Further Reading

Adhikari, M. Tuberculosis and tuberculosis/HIV co-infection in pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 14: 234–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clement, ME, Okeke, NL, Hicks, CB. Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review. JAMA 2014; 312: 1905–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, JF, Mital, P, Kanzaria, HK, et al. Schistosomiasis and pregnancy. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23: 159–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gryseels, B, Polman, K, Clernix, J, et al. Human schistosomiasis. Lancet 2006; 368: 1106–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathad, JS, Gupta, A. Tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women: epidemiology, management, and research gaps. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 1532–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGready, R, Hamilton, KA, Simpson, JA, et al. Safety of the insect repellent N,N-dimethyl-M-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 65: 285–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montoya, JG, Remington, JS. Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 554–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moya-Alvarez, V, Abellana, R, Cot, M. Pregnancy-associated malaria and malaria in infants: an old problem with present consequences. Malaria J 2014; 13: 271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murat, JB, Fricker Hidalgo, H, Brenier-Pinchart, MP, Pelloux, H. Human toxoplasmosis: which biological diagnostic tests are best suited to which clinical situations? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013; 11: 943–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neu, N, Duchon, J, Zachariah, P. TORCH Infections. Clin Perinatol 2015; 42: 77–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roggelin, L, Cramer, J. Malaria prevention in the pregnant traveler: a review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2014; 12: 229–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, ED. Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 1724–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sugarman, J, Colvin, C, Moran, AC, Oxlade, O. Tuberculosis in pregnancy: an estimate of the global burden of disease. Lancet Glob Health 2014; 2: e710–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visser, BJ, van Vugt, M, Grobusch, MP. Malaria: an update on current chemotherapy. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 15: 2219–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, GJA. Antibiotics for syphilis diagnosed during pregnancy. Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; (4): CD001143.Google Scholar

References

Burgdorfer, WA, Barbour, AG, Hayes, SF, et al. Lyme disease: a tick-borne spirochetosis? Science 1982; 216: 1317–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dana, AN. Diagnosis and treatment of tick infestation in tick-borne diseases with cutaneous manifestations. Derm Ther 2009; 22: 293–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh-Behl, D, LaRosa, SP, Tomecki, KJ. Tick-borne infections. Dermatol Clin 2003; 21: 237–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Lyme disease. http://www.cdc.gov/lyme/stats/ (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Shapiro, ED. Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 1724–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aguero-Rosenfeld, ME, Wang, G, Schwartz, I, et al. Diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis. Clin Micr Rev 2005; 18: 484–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steere, AC, McHugh, G, Damle, N, et al. Prospective study of serologic tests for Lyme disease. Clin infect Dis 2008; 471: 188–95.Google Scholar
Kalish, RA, McHugh, G, Granquist, J, et al. Persistence of immunoglobulin M or immunoglobulin G antibody responses to Borrelia burgdorferi 10–20 years after active Lyme disease. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 780–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfister, HW, Wilske, B, Weber, K. Lyme borreliosis: basic science and clinical aspects. Lancet 1994; 343: 1013–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spach, DH, Liles, WC, Campbell, GL, et al. Tick-borne diseases in the United States. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 936–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlesinger, PA, Duray, PH, Burke, BA, et al. Maternal-fetal transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Ann Intern Med 1985; 103: 67–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weber, K, Bratzke, HJ, Neubert, U, et al. Borrelia burgdorferi in a newborn despite oral penicillin for Lyme borreliosis during pregnancy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988; 7: 286–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markowitz, LE, Steere, AC, Benach, JL, et al. Lyme disease during pregnancy. JAMA 1987; 255: 3394–6.Google Scholar
Weber, K, Pfister, HW. Clinical management of Lyme borreliosis. Lancet 1994; 343: 1017–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, CL, Strobino, BA. Lyme disease transmission during pregnancy. Contemp Ob/Gyn 1990; 35: 48–64.Google Scholar
Koren, G, Matsui, D, Bailey, B. DEET-based insect repellants: safety implications for children and pregnant and lactating women. CMAJ 2003; 169: 209–12. Erratum appears in CMAJ 2003; 169: 283.Google ScholarPubMed
Wormser, GP, Dattwyler, RJ, Shapiro, ED, et al. The clinical assessment, treatment, and prevention of Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, JA. Jarish-Herxheimer reaction in Lyme disease. Cutis 1987; 39: 397.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Report 2017. Geneva: WHO, 2016. http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en (accessed March 2018).Google Scholar
Schmit, KM, Wansaula, Z, Pratt, R, Price, SF, Langer, AJ. Tuberculosis: United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017; 66: 289–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6611a2 (accessed March 2018).Google Scholar
Edwards, K, Kirkpatrick, CH. The immunology of mycobacterial diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 134: 1062–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riley, R. Airborne infection. Am J Med 1974; 57: 466–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, J. Defense mechanisms. In Murray, JJ (ed.), The Normal Lung: The Basis for Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Disease. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 1986, pp. 313–38.Google Scholar
Smith, D, Wiengeshaus, E. What animal models can teach us about the pathogenesis of tuberculosis in humans. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11: S385–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathad, JS, Gupta, A. Tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women: epidemiology, management, and research gaps. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 1532–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, DM, Leonard, MK, LoBue, PA, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 64: 111–15. https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidelines/pdf/ciw778.pdf (accessed March 2017).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Thoracic Society. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. MMWR Recomm Rep 2000; 49 (RR-6): 1–51.Google Scholar
Menzles, D. Interpretation of repeated tuberculin tests. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1991; 159: 15–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, ME, Fineberg, HV, Colditz, GA. Geographic latitude and the efficacy of bacillus Calmetté-Guerin vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 982–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf (accessed March 2018).
Small, PM, Schecter, GF, Goodman, PC, et al. Treatment of tuberculosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 289–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arango, L, Brewin, AW, Murray, JF. The spectrum of tuberculosis as currently seen in a metropolitan hospital. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973; 108: 805–12.Google Scholar
Corr, WPJ, Kyle, RA, Bowie, EFW. Hematologic changes in tuberculosis. Am J Med Sci 1964; 248: 709–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Chung, DK, Hubbard, WW. Hyponatremia in untreated active pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99: 592–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunlap, NE, Bass, J, Fujiwara, P, et al. Diagnostic standards and classification of tuberculosis in adults and children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 1376–95.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated guidelines for the use of nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009; 58: 7–10.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Availability of an assay for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis, including Rifampin-resistant strains, and considerations for its use: United States, 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013; 62: 821–7.Google Scholar
Saukkonen, JJ, Cohn, DL, Jasmer, RM, et al. An official ATS statement: hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006 174: 935–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franks, A, Binkin, N, Snider, D, et al. Isoniazid hepatitis among pregnant and postpartum Hispanic patients. Public Health Rep 1989; 104: 151–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Zumla, A, Bates, M, Mwaba, P. The neglected global burden of tuberculosis in pregnancy. Lancet Glob Health 2014; 2: e675–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Getahun, H, Sculier, D, Sismanidis, C, et al. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of tuberculosis in children and mothers: evidence for action for maternal, neonatal, and child health services. J Infect Dis 2012; 205: S216–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adhikari, M. Tuberculosis and tuberculosis/HIV co-infection in pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 14: 234–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jana, N, Vasishta, K, Jindal, S, et al. Perinatal outcome in pregnancies complicated by pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994; 44: 119–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sugarman, J, Colvin, C, Moran, AC, Oxlade, O. Tuberculosis in pregnancy: an estimate of the global burden of disease. Lancet Glob Health 2014; 2: e710–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zenner, D, Kruijshaar, ME, Andrews, N, et al. Risk of tuberculosis in pregnancy: a national, primary care based cohort and self-controlled case series study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 779–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Espinal, MA, Reingold, AL, Lavandera, M. Effect of pregnancy on the risk of developing active tuberculosis. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 488–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Marche, AP. Tuberculosis and pregnancy: five- to ten-year review of 215 patients in their fertile age. Chest 1975; 68: 800–4.Google Scholar
Riley, L. Pneumonia and tuberculosis in pregnancy. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997; 11: 119–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jana, N, Vasishta, K, Saha, SC, Ghosh, K. Obstetrical outcomes among women with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 645–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormerod, P. Tuberculosis in pregnancy and the puerperium. Thorax 2001; 56: 494–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Fact sheets: TB and pregnancy. http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/populations/pregnancy/ (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Sterling, TR, Villarino, ME, Borisov, AS, et al. Three months of rifapentine and isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection. N Eng J Med 2011; 365: 2155–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. TB treatment and pregnancy. www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/treatment/pregnancy.htm (accessed March 2018).
Fairhurst, RM, Wellems, TE. Malaria (Plasmodium species). In Bennett, JE, Dolin, R, Blaser, MJ (eds), Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 8th edn. New York, NY: Elsevier, 2015, pp. 3070–90.Google Scholar
Dellicour, S, Tatem, AJ, Guerra, CA, et al. Quantifying the number of pregnancies at risk for malaria in 2007: a demographic study. PLoS 2010; 7: e1000021.Google ScholarPubMed
Moya-Alvarez, V, Abellana, R, Cot, M. Pregnancy-associated malaria and malaria in infants: an old problem with present consequences. Malaria J 2014; 13: 271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McAdam, AJ, Milner, DA, Sharpe, AH. Infectious diseases. In Kumer, V, Abbas, AK, Aster, JC (eds), Robbins and Cotran’s Pathologic Basis of Disease, 9th edn. New York, NY: Elsevier, 2015, pp. 390–2.Google Scholar
Jelinek, T, Nothdurft, HD, Loscher, T. Malaria in non-immune travelers: a synopsis of history, symptoms, and treatment in 160 patients. J Travel Med 1994; 1: 199–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasvol, G. The treatment of complicated and severe malaria. Br Med J 2005; 75: 29–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Malaria diagnosis & treatment in the United States. http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Mouatcho, JC, Goldring, JPD. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests: challenges and prospects. J Med Microbiol 2013; 62: 1491–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barber, BE, Bird, E, Wilkes, CS, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 2015; 211: 1104–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steketee, R, Wirima, J, Slutsker, L, et al. Objectives and methodology in a study of malaria treatment and prevention in pregnancy in rural Malawi: the Mangochi Malaria Research Project. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 55: 17–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansell, J, Hamilton, KA, Pinder, M, et al. Short-range attractiveness of pregnant women to Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2002; 96: 113–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Procop, N, Jessen, R, Hyde, S, et al. The persistence of Plasmodium falciparum in the placenta after apparently effective quinidine/clindamycin therapy. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 128–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Maestre, A, Carmona-Fonseca, J. Immune responses during gestational malaria: a review of the current knowledge and future trend of research. J Infect Dev Ctries 2014; 8: 391–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luxemburger, C, Ricci, F, Nosten, F, et al. The epidemiology of severe malaria in an area of low transmission in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997; 91: 256–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huynh, B-T, Cottrell, G, Cot, M, et al. Burden of malaria in early pregnancy: a neglected problem? Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60: 598–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desai, M, ter Kulle, FO, Nesten, F, et al. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. Lancet Infect Dis 2007; 7: 93–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umbers, AJ, Aitken, EH, Rogerson, SJ. Malaria in pregnancy: small babies, big problems. Trends Parasitol 2011; 27: 168–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saeed, BO, Atabani, GS, Nawwfaf, A, et al. Hypoglycaemia in pregnant women with malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990; 84: 349–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brabin, B, Piper, C. Anaemia and malaria-attributable low birth-weight in two populations in Papua New Guinea. Ann Hum Biol 1997; 24: 547–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Espinoza, E, Hidalgo, L, Chedraui, P. The effect of malarial infection on maternal–fetal outcome in Ecuador. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2005; 18: 101–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, RD, Hailemariam, A, Jimma, D, et al. Burden of malaria during stable and unstable transmission in Ethiopia during a nonepidemic year. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 1765–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGready, R, Hamilton, KA, Simpson, JA, et al. Safety of the insect repellent N,N-dimethyl-M-toluamide (DEET) in pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 65: 285–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roggelin, L, Cramer, J. Malaria prevention in the pregnant traveler: a review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2014; 12: 229–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kain, K. Chemotherapy and prevention of drug-resistant malaria. Wilderness Environ Med 1995; 6: 307–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria, 3rd edn. Geneva: WHO, 2015. http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241549127/ (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Fernandes, S, Sicuri, E, Kayentao, K, et al. Cost effectiveness of two versus three or more doses of intermittent preventive treatment for malaria during pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a modelling study of meta-analysis and cost data. Lancet Glob Health 2015; 3: 143–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kayentao, K, Garner, P, van Eijk, AM, et al. Intermittent preventive therapy for malaria during pregnancy using 2 versus 3 or more doses of sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine and risk of low birth weight in Africa: systemic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2013; 309: 594–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanhauwere, B, Maradit, H, Kerr, L. Post-marketing surveillance of prophylactic mefloquine (Larium) use in pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 58: 17–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips-Howard, PA, Ter Kuile, FO. CNS adverse events associated with antimalarial agents: fact or fiction? Drug Saf 1995; 12: 370–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alecrim, WD, Espinosa, FE, Alecrim, MG. Emerging and re-emerging diseases in Latin America: Plasmodium falciparum infection in the pregnant patient. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2000; 14: 83–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Q, Weina, PJ. Severe embryotoxicity of artemisinin derivatives in experimental animals but possibly safe in pregnant women. Molecules 2010; 15: 40–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Visser, BJ, van Vugt, M, Grobusch, MP. Malaria: an update on current chemotherapy. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 15: 2219–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malaria vaccine: WHO position paper, January 2016. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2016; 91(4): 33–51.
Coelho, CH, Dorifchamou, JYA, Zaidi, I, Duffy, PE. Advances in malaria vaccine development: report from the 2017 malaria vaccine symposium. NPJ Vaccines 2017; 2: 34. doi 10.1038/541541-017-0035-3.
RTS,S Clinical Trials Partnership. Efficacy and safety of the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine during 18 months after vaccination: a phase 3 randomized, controlled trial in children and young infants at 11 African sites. PLoS Med 2014; 11 (7): e1001685. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001685.
Rose, M. Origins of syphilis. Archaeology 1997; 50: 24–5.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2015 sexually transmitted diseases surveillance. Syphilis. http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats15/syphilis.htm (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Radolf, JE, Tramont, EC, Salazar, JC. Syphilis (Treponema pallidum). In Bennett, JE, Dolin, R, Blaser, MJ (eds), Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 8th edn. New York, NY: Elsevier, 2015, pp. 2684–709.Google Scholar
Magnuson, HJ, Thomas, EW, Olansky, S, et al. Inoculation syphilis in human volunteers. Medicine (Baltimore) 1956; 35: 33–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapel, TA. The variability of syphilitic chancres. Sex Transm Dis 1978; 5: 68–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapel, TA. The signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis. Sex Transm Dis 1980; 7: 161–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shafii, T, Radolf, JD, Sanchez, PJ, et al. Congenital syphilis. In Holmes, KK, Sparling, PF, Stamm, WE (eds), Sexually Transmitted Diseases. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008, pp. 1577–612.Google Scholar
Wheeler, HL, Agarwal, S, Goh, BT. Dark ground microscopy and treponemal serological tests in the diagnosis of early syphilis. Sex Transm Infect 2004; 80: 411–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, ST, Akbar, Z, Larsen, SA, et al. Serological response to syphilis treatment. JAMA 1985; 253: 1296–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiumara, NJ. Serologic responses to treatment of 128 patients with late latent syphilis. Sex Transm Dis 1979; 6: 243–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkowitz, K, Baxi, L, Fox, HE. False-negative syphilis screening: the prozone phenomenon, nonimmune hydrops, and diagnosis of syphilis during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163: 975–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez, GB, Kamb, ML, Newman, LM, et al. Untreated maternal syphilis and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull WHO 2013; 91: 217–26.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldenberg, RL, Thompson, C. The infectious origins of stillbirth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189: 861–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeSantis, M, DeLuca, C, Mappa, I, et al. Syphilis infection in pregnancy: fetal risks and clinical management. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2012; 2012: 430585.Google Scholar
Walker, GJA. Antibiotics for syphilis diagnosed during pregnancy. Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; (4): CD001143.Google Scholar
Nathan, L, Bawdon, RE, Sidawi, JE, et al. Penicillin levels following the administration of benzathine penicillin G in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82: 338–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Lukehart, S, Hook, EW, Baker-Zander, SH, et al. Invasion of the central nervous system by Treponema pallidum: implications for diagnosis and therapy. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 855–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohr, JA, Griffiths, W, Jackson, R, et al. Neurosyphilis and penicillin levels in cerebrospinal fluid. JAMA 1976; 236: 2208–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schroeter, AL, Lucas, JB, Price, EV, et al. Treatment for early syphilis and reactivity of serologic tests. JAMA 1972; 221: 471–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clement, ME, Okeke, NL, Hicks, CB. Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review. JAMA 2014; 312: 1905–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wendel, GD, Stark, BJ, Jamison, RB, et al. Penicillin allergy and desensitization in serious infections during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 1229–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziaya, PR, Hankins, GD, Gilstrap, LC, Halsey, AB. Intravenous penicillin desensitization and treatment during pregnancy. JAMA 1986; 256: 2561–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2015 sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Management of persons who have a history of penicillin allergy. http://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/pen-allergy.htm (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Yates, AB. Management of patients with a history of allergy to beta-lactam antibiotics. Am J Med 2008; 121: 572–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollier, LM, Harstad, TW, Sanchez, PJ, et al. Fetal syphilis: clinical and laboratory characteristics. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 97: 947–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Myles, TD, Elam, G, Park-Hwang, E, Nguyen, T. The Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction and fetal monitoring changes in pregnant women treated for syphilis. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 92: 859–64.Google ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2015 sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers. http://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/genital-ulcers.htm (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Parasites: toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection). http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/ (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Dubey, JP. Toxoplasmosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1994; 205: 1593–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Roghmann, MC, Faulkner, CT, Lefkowitz, A, et al. Decreased seroprevalence for Toxoplasma gondii in Seventh Day Adventists in Maryland. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 60: 790–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, JL, Lopez, A, Wilson, M, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2001; 56: 296–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, HA. A nationwide serum survey of United States military recruits, 1962. VI. Toxoplasma antibodies. Am J Epidemiol 1965; 81: 385–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, KL, Wilson, M, Hightower, AW, et al. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in U.S. military recruits in 1989: comparison with data published in 1965. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23: 1182–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, JM, Colley, DG. Preventing congenital toxoplasmosis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000; 49 (RR-2): 57–75.Google Scholar
Alford, CA, Stagno, S, Reynolds, DW. Congenital toxoplasmosis: Clinical, laboratory, and therapeutic considerations, with special reference to subclinical disease. Bull N Y Acad Med 1974; 50: 160–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Kimball, AC, Kean, BH, Fuchs, F. Congenital toxoplasmosis: a prospective study of 4,048 obstetric patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971; 111: 211–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerina, NG, Hsu, H-W, Meissner, H, et al. Neonatal serologic screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1858–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgerson, PR, Mastroiacovo, P. The global burden of congenital toxoplasmosis: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ 2013; 91: 501–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapperud, G, Jenum, PA, Stray-Pedersen, B, et al. Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy: results of a prospective case–control study in Norway. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144: 405–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baril, L, Ancelle, T, Goulet, V, et al. Risk factors for Toxoplasma infection in pregnancy: a case–control study in France. Scand J Infect Dis 1999; 31: 305–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Cook, AJ, Gilbert, RE, Buffolano, W, et al. Sources of Toxoplasma infection in pregnant women. European multicentre case–control study. European Research Network on Congenital Toxoplasmosis. BMJ 2000; 321: 142–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stray-Pedersen, B, Lorentzen-Styr, AM. Epidemiological aspects of Toxoplasma infections among women in Norway. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1980; 59: 323–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, MR, Rossetti, RJ, Olson, PE. Cats and toxoplasmosis risk in HIV-infected adults. JAMA 1993; 269: 76–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyer, K, Hill, D, Mui, E, et al. Unrecognized ingestion of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts leads to congenital toxoplasmosis and causes epidemics in North America. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 1081–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kean, BH, Kimball, AC, Christenson, WN. An epidemic of acute toxoplasmosis. JAMA 1969; 208: 1002–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control. Toxoplasmosis: Pennsylvania. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1975; 24: 285–6.Google Scholar
Masur, H, Jones, TC, Lempert, JA, et al. Outbreak of toxoplasmosis in a family and documentation of acquired retinochoroiditis. Am J Med 1978; 64: 396–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fertig, A, Selwyn, S, Tibble, MJ. Tetracycline and toxoplasmosis. Br Med J 1977; 2: 192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, WY, Nam, HW, Kwak, NH, et al. Foodborne outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis. J Infect Dis 1997; 175: 1280–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, JJ, Delgato, DG, Lobel, HO, et al. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with eating undercooked venison. Am J Epidemiol 1983; 118: 832–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, JJ, Roberto, RR, Brooks, NF. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with raw goat’s milk. JAMA 1982; 248: 1728–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowie, WR, King, AS, Werker, DH, et al. Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water. Lancet 1997; 350: 173–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, JL, Dubey, JP. Waterborne toxoplasmosis: recent developments. Exp Parasitol 2010; 124: 10–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stagno, S, Dykes, AC, Amos, CS, et al. An outbreak of toxoplasmosis linked to cats. Pediatrics 1980; 65: 706–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Teutsch, SM, Juranek, DD, Sulzer, A, et al. Epidemic toxoplasmosis associated with infected cats. N Engl J Med 1979; 300: 695–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopes-Mori, F, Mitsuka-Bregano, R, Capobiango, J, et al. Programs for control of congenital toxoplasmosis. Rev Assoc Med Bras 2011; 57: 581–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Bader, TJ, Macones, GA, Asch, DA. Prenatal screening for toxoplasmosis. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90: 457–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stillwaggon, E, Carrier, CS, Sautter, M, McLeod, R. Maternal serologic screening to prevent congenital toxoplasmosis: a decision-analytic economic model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5 (9): e1333. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murat, JB, Fricker Hidalgo, H, Brenier-Pinchart, MP, Pelloux, H. Human toxoplasmosis: which biological diagnostic tests are best suited to which clinical situations? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013; 11: 943–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murat, JB, L’Ollivier, C, Fricker Hidalgo, H, et al. Evaluation of the new Elecsys Toxo IgG avidity assay for toxoplasmosis and new insights into the interpretation of avidity results. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2012; 19: 1838–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Villard, O, Breit, L, Cimon, B, et al. Comparison of four commercially available avidity tests for Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgG antibodies. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2013; 20: 197–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prusa, AR, Kasper, DC, Pollak, A, et al. Amniocentesis for the detection of congenital toxoplasmosis: results from the nationwide Austrian prenatal screening program. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015; 21: 191.e1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antsaklis, A, Daskalakis, G, Papantoniou, N, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Prenat Diagn 2002; 22: 1107–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robert-Gangneux, F, Dardé, M-L. Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012; 25: 264–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daffos, F, Forestier, F, Capella-Pavlovsky, M, et al. Prenatal management of 746 pregnancies at risk for congenital toxoplasmosis. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 271–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gay-Andrieu, F, Marty, P, Pialat, J, et al. Fetal toxoplasmosis and negative amniocentesis: necessity of an ultrasound follow-up. Prenat Diagn 2003; 23: 558–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thiebaut, R, Leproust, S, Chene, G, et al. Effectiveness of prenatal treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis: a meta-analysis of individual patients’ data. Lancet 2007; 369: 115–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Robert-Gangneux, F. It is not only the cat that did it: how to prevent and treat toxoplasmosis. Journal of Infection 2014; 68: S125–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, DS, Dubey, JP. Toxoplasma gondii: the changing paradigm of congenital toxoplasmosis. Parasitology 2011; 138; 1829–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wujcicka, W, Wilczynski, J, Nowakowska, D. Do the placental barrier, parasite genotype, and Toll-like receptor polymorphisms contribute to the course of primary infection with various Toxoplasma gondii genotypes in pregnant women? Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 33: 703–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, LM, Dubey, JP. Toxoplasmosis: a history of clinical observations. Int J Parasitol 2009; 39: 895–901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cortina-Borja, M, Tan, H, Wallon, M, et al. Prenatal treatment for serious neurological sequelae of congenital toxoplasmosis: an observational prospective cohort study. PLoS Med 2010; 7 (10). pii: e1000351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chemla, C, Villena, I, Aubert, D, et al. Preconception seroconversion and maternal seronegativity at delivery do not rule out the risk of congenital toxoplasmosis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002; 9: 489–90.Google Scholar
European Multicentre Study on Congenital Toxoplasmosis. Effect of timing and type of treatment on the risk of mother to child transmission of Toxoplasma gondii. BJOG 2003; 110: 112–20.Google Scholar
SYROCOT (Systematic Review on Congenital Toxoplasmosis) study group; Thiébaut, R, Leproust, S, Chêne, G, Gilbert, R. Effectiveness of prenatal treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis: a meta-analysis of individual patients’ data. Lancet 2007; 369: 115–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Montoya, JG, Remington, JS. Management of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 554–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oz, HS. Maternal and congenital toxoplasmosis: currently available and novel therapies in horizon. Front Microbiol 2014; 5: 385. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gryseels, B, Polman, K, Clernix, J, et al. Human schistosomiasis. Lancet 2006; 368: 1106–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. Schistosomiasis: number of people treated worldwide in 2013. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2015; 90: 25–32. http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9005 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Engels, D, Chitsulo, L, Montresor, A, Savioli, L. The global epidemiological situation of schistosomiasis and new approaches to control and research. Acta Trop 2002; 82: 139–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, JF, Mital, P, Kanzaria, HK, et al. Schistosomiasis and pregnancy. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23: 159–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, CH, Dickman, K, Tisch, DJ. Reassesment of the cost of chronic helminthic infections: A meta-analysis of disability-related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis. Lancet 2005; 365: 1561–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, HE, Compton, DW, de Silva, N, LoVerde, PT, Olds, GR. New policies for using anthelmintics in high risk groups. Trends Parisitol 2002; 18: 381–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Walker, AJ. Insights into the functional biology of schistosomes. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4: 203 doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnon, R. Life span of parasite schistosomiasis patients (editorial, comment]. Israel J Med Sci 1990; 26: 404–5.Google Scholar
Doenhoff, MJ, Bain, J. The immune-dependence of schistosomicidal chemotherapy: Relative lack of efficacy of an antimonial in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice deprived of their T-cells and the demonstration of drug-antiserum synergy. Clin Exp Immunol 1978; 33: 232–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Cheever, AW, Powers, KG. Rate of destruction of Schistosoma mansoni eggs and adult worms in the tissues of rhesus monkeys. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1971; 20: 69–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, MS, Mentink-Kane, MM, Pesce, JT, et al. Immunopathology of schistosomiasis. Immunol Cell Bio 2007; 85: 148–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Coutinho, HM, Acosta, LP, Wu, HW, et al. Th-2 cytokines are associated with persistent hepatic fibrosis in human Schistosoma japonicum infection. J Infect Dis 2007; 195: 288–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, DJ, Ross, AG, Yue-Sheng, L, et al. Diagnosis and management of schistosomiasis. BMJ 2011; 342: d2651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoeffler, DF. Cercarial dermatitis. Arch Environ Health 1974; 29: 225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, KS. The pathology of schistosome infections. Helminthol Abstr 1973; 42: 592–633.Google Scholar
Bottieau, E, Clernix, J, de Vega, MR, et al. Imported Katayama fever: Clinical and biological features at presentation and during treatment. J Infect 2006; 52: 339–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, MG. Schistosomiasis control program in the People’s Republic of China: a review. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1989; 20: 511–17.Google ScholarPubMed
el-Masry, NA, Farid, Z, Bassily, S, et al. Schistosomal colonic polyposis: Clinical, radiological and parasitological study. J Trop Med Hyg 1986; 89: 13–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Stephenson, L. The impact of schistosomiasis on human nutrition. Parasitology 1993; 107 (Suppl): S107–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamyman, MJ, Noble, DJ, Narang, S, et al. Small bowel obstruction secondary to intestinal schistosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2006; 100: 885–887.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colley, DG, Bustinduy, AL, Secor, WE, et al. Human schistosomiasis. Lancet 2014; 383: 2253–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richter, J, Correia Dacal, AR, Vergetti Siqueira, JG, et al. Sonographic prediction of variceal bleeding in patients with liver fibrosis due to Schistosoma mansoni. Trop Med Int Health 1998; 3; 728–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, AG, Bartley, PB, Sleigh, AC, et al. Schistosomiasis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1212–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrade, ZA, Rocha, H. Schistosomial glomerulopathy. Kidney Int 1979; 16: 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nascimento-Carvalho, CM, Moreno-Carvalho, OA. Neuroschistosomiasis due to Schistosoma mansoni: a review of pathogenesis, clinical syndromes, and diagnostic approaches. Rev Inst Trop Sao Paulo 2005; 47: 179–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Ferrari, TC. Involvement of the central nervous system in the schistosomiasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2004; 99: 59–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrade, ZA, Andrade, SG. Pathogenesis of schistosomal pulmonary arteritis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1970; 19: 305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faid, Z, Greer, JW, Ishak, KG, et al. Chronic pulmonary schistosomiasis. Am Rev Tuberc 1959; 79: 119.Google Scholar
Pedroso, ER, Lambertucci, JR, Greco, DB, et al. Pulmonary Schistosomiasis mansoni: Post-treatment pulmonary clinical-radiological alterations in patients in the chronic phase: A double-blind study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1987; 81: 778–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eogan, M. Ectopic pregnancy associated with tubal schistosomiasis. Ir Med J 2002; 95: 250.Google ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, C. Schistosomiasis japonica involvement of the female genital tract. JAMA 1964; 188: 647–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahmoud, AA. The ecology of eosinophilis in schistosomiasis. J Infect Dis 1982; 145; 613–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harries, AD, Fryatt, R, Walker, J, et al. Schistosomiasis in expatriates returning to Britain from the tropics: a controlled study. Lancet 1986; 1: 86–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Oliveira, LM, Santos, HL, Goncalves, MM, et al. Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction as an additional tool for the diagnosis of low-intensity Schistosoma mansoni infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 68: 416–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Dam, GJ, Wichers, JH, Falcao Ferreira, TM, et al. Diagnosis of schistosomiasis by reagent strip test for detection of circulating cathodic antigen. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 5458–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, MS. The epidemiology of adverse pregnancy outcomes: an overview. J Nutr 2003; 133: 1592S–1596S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGarvey, ST, Aligui, G, Graham, KK, et al. Schistosomiasis japonica and childhood status in northeastern Leyte, the Phillipines: a randomized trial of praziquantel versus placebo. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 54: 498–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stephenson, LS, Latham, MC, Kurz, KM, Kinoti, SN. Single dose metrifonate or praziquantel treatment in Kenyan children. II. Effects on growth in relation to Schistosoma haematobium and hookworm egg counts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1989; 41: 445–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Ajanga, A, Lwambo, NJ, Blair, L, et al. Schistosoma mansoni in pregnancy and associations with anaemia in northwest Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2006; 100: 59–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegrist, D, Siegrist-Obimpeh, P. Schistosoma haematobium infection in pregnancy. Acta Trop 1992; 50: 317–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qunhua, L, Juawen, Z, Bozhao, L, et al. Investigation of association between female genital tract diseases and Schistosoma japonica infection. Acta Trop 2000; 77: 179–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romia, SA, Handoussa, AE, Youseff, SA, et al. Transplacental transfer of schistosomal antigens from infected mothers to their newborns. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 1992; 22: 575–82.Google Scholar
Hassan, MM, Hassounah, OA, Hegab, M, et al. Transmission of circulating schistosomal antigens from infected mothers to their newborns. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 1997; 27: 773–80.Google ScholarPubMed
McDonald, EA, Pond-Tor, S, Jarilla, B, et al. Schistosomiasis japonica during pregnancy is associated with elevated endotoxin levels in maternal and placental compartments. J Infect Dis 2014; 209: 468–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brindley, PJ, Sher, A. Immunologic involvement in the efficacy of prazinquantel. Exp Parasitol 1990; 71: 245–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, MG. Use of praziquantel for clinical treatment and morbidity control of schistosomiasis japonica in China: a review of 30 years’ experience. Acta Trop 2005; 96: 168–76.Google ScholarPubMed
Chapman, PJ, Wilkinson, PR, Davidson, RN. Acute schistosomiasis (Katayama fever) among British aircrew. Br Med J 1988: 297: 1101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adam, I, el Elwasila, T, Homeida, M. Is praziquantel therapy safe during pregnancy? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004; 98: 540–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, I, Elwasila, E, Homeida, M. Praziquantel for the treatment of schistosomiasis mansoni during pregnancy. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2005; 99: 37–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, AG, Vickers, D, Olds, GR, et al. Katayama syndrome. Lancet Infect Dis 2007; 7: 218–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed