Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6d856f89d9-jhxnr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-16T07:15:22.932Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

14 - The Grim Reaper in the Forest Primeval

Wild Chimpanzee Diseases and Lessons for Healthy Living

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 July 2020

Kevin D. Hunt
Kevin D. Hunt
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Get access

Summary

We humans suffer from a multitude of maladies. No matter our age, the ever-watchful Grim Reaper may spring upon us from any direction. One of the lessons chimpanzees teach us is that many of our ailments are self-inflicted – we kill ourselves in car crashes, shootings, and suicides, yes, but rather than external forces I mean internal afflictions that sap our vitality and tip us into an early grave. Comparing rates of heart disease, arthritis, and cancer among chimpanzees and different human populations tells us these ailments are the product of the mismatch between our current mode of life and the living conditions in which our ancestors evolved. Listening to these wellness lessons could yield profound health benefits, if only our cognitive selves could overpower instincts bequeathed us by our hunter-gatherer ancestors.

Type
Chapter
Information
Chimpanzee
Lessons from our Sister Species
 , pp. 252 - 273
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alaaeddine, N, Okais, J, Ballane, L, Baddoura, R (2012) Use of complementary and alternative therapy among patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. J Clinical Nursing 21, 3198–3204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ames, BN, Cathcart, R, Schwiers, E, Hochstein, P (1981) Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant-and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis. Proc Nat Acad Sci 78, 6858–6862.Google Scholar
Anderson, JJ, Felson, DT (1988) Factors associated with osteo-arthritis of the knee in the first national-health and nutrition examination survey (HANES-I): evidence for an association with overweight, race, and physical demands of work. Am J Epidemiol 128, 179–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrade, MC, Higgins, PB, Mattern, VL, et al. (2011) Morphometric variables related to metabolic profile in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Comp Med 61, 457–461.Google Scholar
Arden, N, Nevitt, MC (2006) Osteoarthritis: epidemiology. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 20, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armstrong, GL, Conn, LA, Pinner, RW (1999) Trends in infectious disease mortality in the United States during the 20th century. JAMA 281, 61–66.Google Scholar
Arora, G, Polavarapu, N, McDonald, JF (2009) Did natural selection for increased cognitive ability in humans lead to an elevated risk of cancer? Med Hypoth 73, 453–456.Google Scholar
Arora, G, Mezencev, R, McDonald, JF (2012) Human cells display reduced apoptotic function relative to chimpanzee cells. PLoS ONE 7, e46182. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046182.Google Scholar
Arthritis Foundation, Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999) National Arthritis Action Plan: A Public Health Strategy. Atlanta, GA: Arthritis Foundation. www.arthritis.org/media/Delia/NAAP_full_plan.pdf.Google Scholar
Ashford, RW, Reid, GDF, Wrangham, RW (2000) Intestinal parasites of the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes in Kibale Forest, Uganda. Ann Trop Med Parasit 94,173–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Åstrand, PO (1992) Why exercise? Med Sci Sport Exerc 24, 153–161.Google Scholar
Bailey, J (2009) An examination of chimpanzee use in human cancer research. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals-ATLA 37, 399–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, J (2011) Lessons from chimpanzee-based research on human disease: the implications of genetic differences. Alternat Lab Animals, 39, 527.Google Scholar
Barreiro, L, Marioni, J, Blekhman, R, Stephens, M, Gilad, Y (2010) Functional comparison of innate immune signaling pathways in primates PLoS Genet 6 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beniashvili, DS (1989) An overview of the world literature on spontaneous tumors in nonhuman primates. J Med Primatol 18, 423–437.Google Scholar
Boesch, C (2008) Why do chimpanzees die in the forest? The challenges of understanding and controlling for wild ape health. Am J Primatol 70, 722–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J (1969) Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bridges, PS (1992) Prehistoric arthritis in the Americas. Ann Rev Anthropol 21, 67–91.Google Scholar
Brown, L, Rosner, B, Willett, WW, Sacks, FM (1999) Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. American J Clin Nutr 69, 30–42.Google Scholar
Brown, SL, Anderson, DC, Dick, EJ Jr., et al. (2009) Neoplasia in the chimpanzee (Pan spp.). J Med Primatol 38, 137–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, WJ, Lucas, CT, Kuhn, US (1972) Gonorrhoea in the chimpanzee: infection with laboratory-passed gonococci and by natural transmission. Br J Vener Dis 48, 177.Google Scholar
Burr, DB (2004) The importance of subchondral bone in the progression of osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 31, 77–80.Google Scholar
Carter, ML, Pontzer, H, Wrangham, RW, Peterhans, JK (2008) Skeletal pathology in Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Am J Phys Anthropol 135, 389–403.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control (1999) Achievements in public health, 1900–1999: control of infectious diseases. Morbid Mortal Weekly Rep 48, 621–629.Google Scholar
Chen, GC, Lv, DB, Pang, Z, Dong, JY, Liu, QF (2013) Dietary fiber intake and stroke risk: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Clin Nutr 67, 96–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chodzko-Zajko, WJ, Proctor, DN, Singh, MAF, et al. (2009) Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Med Sci Sport Exerc 41, 1510–1530.Google Scholar
Cox, LGE, van Donkelaar, CC, van Rietbergen, B, Emans, PJ, Ito, K (2012) Decreased bone tissue mineralization can partly explain subchondral sclerosis observed in osteoarthritis. Bone 50 1152–1161.Google Scholar
Dai, Z, Niu, J, Zhang, Y, Jacques, P, Felson, DT (2017) Dietary intake of fibre and risk of knee osteoarthritis in two US prospective cohorts. Ann Rheum Dis 76, 1411–1419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dekker, J, Boot, B, van der Woude, LHV, Bijlsma, JWJ (1992) Pain and disability in osteoarthritis: a review of biobehavioral mechanisms. J Behav Med 15, 189–214.Google Scholar
Delahunt, E, Monaghan, K, Caulfield, B (2006) Altered neuromuscular control and ankle joint kinematics during walking in subjects with functional instability of the ankle joint. Am J Sports Med 34, 1970–1976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denton, D, Weisinger, R, Mund, NI, Wickings, EJ (1995) Blood pressure of chimpanzees. Nature Med 1, 1009–1016.Google Scholar
Donham, KJ, Leininger, JR (1977) Spontaneous leprosy-like disease in a chimpanzee. J Infect Dis 136, 132–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dounias, E, Froment, A (2006) When forest-based hunter-gatherers become sedentary: consequences for diet and health. UNASYLVA-FAO 57, 26–33.Google Scholar
Duggal, NA, Pollock, RD, Lazarus, NR, Harridge, S, Lord, JM (2018) Major features of immunesenescence, including reduced thymic output, are ameliorated by high levels of physical activity in adulthood. Aging Cell 17. DOI: 10.1111/acel.12750.Google Scholar
Eaton, SB, Eaton, SB, Konner, MJ (1997) Paleolithic nutrition revisited: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. Eur J Clin Nutr 51, 207–216.Google Scholar
Edsall, G, Gaines, S, Landy, M, et al. (1960) Studies on infection and immunity in experimental typhoid fever: I. Typhoid fever in chimpanzees orally infected with Salmonella typhosa. J Exp Med 112, 143.Google Scholar
Elliott, P, Walker, LL, Little, MP, et al. (2007) Change in salt intake affects blood pressure of chimpanzees: implications for human populations. Circulation 116, 1563–1568.Google Scholar
Ely, JJ, Zavaskis, T, Lammey, ML (2013) Hypertension increases with aging and obesity in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Zoo Biol 32, 79–87.Google Scholar
Felson, DT, Zhang, Y, Hannan, MT, et al. (1997) Risk factors for incident radiographic knee osteoarthritis in the elderly: the Framingham Study. Arthritis Rheum 40, 728–733.Google Scholar
Gajdusek, DC, Gibbs, CJ, Alpers, M (1967) Transmission and passage of experimental “kuru” to chimpanzees. Science 155, 212–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, F, Bailes, E, Robertson, DL, et al. (1999) Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 397, 436–441.Google Scholar
Gillespie, TR, Lonsdorf, EV, Canfield, EP, et al. (2010) Demographic and ecological effects on patterns of parasitism in eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Am J Phys Anthropol 143, 534–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodall, J (1983) Population dynamics during a fifteen year period in one community of free-living chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 61, 1–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodall, J (1986) The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Goodall, J van Lawick (1971) In the Shadow of Man. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Goodman, AH, Lallo, J, Armelagos, GJ, Rose, JC (1984) Health changes at Dickson Mounds Illinois (A.D. 950–1300). In Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture (eds. Cohen, MN, Armelagos, GJ), pp. 271–305. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Grimm, D (2017) Research on lab chimps is over: why have so few been retired to sanctuaries? Science. DOI: 10.1126/science.aan6956.Google Scholar
Hanamura, S, Kiyono, M, Lukasik-Braum, M, et al. (2008) Chimpanzee deaths at Mahale caused by a flu-like disease. Primates 49, 77–80.Google Scholar
Haskell, WL, Lee, IM, Pate, RR, et al. (2007) Physical activity and public health: updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39, 1423–1434.Google Scholar
Heneine, W, Switzer, WM, Sandstrom, P, et al. (1998) Identification of a human population infected with simian foamy viruses. Nature Med 4, 403–407.Google Scholar
Herbinger, I, Boesch, C, Rothe, H (2001) Territory characteristics among three neighbouring chimpanzee communities in the Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Int J Primatol 32, 143–167.Google Scholar
Hill, K, Kaplan, H, Hawkes, K, Hurdato, AM (1985) Men’s time allocation to subsistence work among the Ache of eastern Paraguay. Hum Ecol 13, 29–47.Google Scholar
Hubbard, GB, Lee, DR, Eichberg, JW (1991) Diseases and pathology of chimpanzees at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. Am J Primatol 24, 273–282.Google Scholar
Huffman, MA (1997) Current evidence for self medication in primates: a multidisciplinary perspective. Am J Phys Anthropol 104(S25), 171–200.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huffman, MA, Wrangham, RW (1997) Diversity of medicinal plant use in wild chimpanzees. In Chimpanzee Cultures (eds. Wrangham, RW, McGrew, WC, de Waal, FB, Heltne, PG), pp. 129–148. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Huffman, MA, Page, JE, Sukhdeo, MV, et al. (1996) Leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees: a behavioral adaptation for the control of strongyle nematode infections. Int J Primatol 17, 475–503.Google Scholar
Hunt, KD (1991) Mechanical implications of chimpanzee positional behavior. Am J Phys Anthropol 86, 521–536.Google Scholar
Hunt, KD (1992) Positional behavior of Pan troglodytes in the Mahale Mountains and Gombe Stream National Parks, Tanzania. Am J Phys Anthropol 87, 83–107.Google Scholar
Hunter, DJ, Eckstein, F (2009) Exercise and osteoarthritis. J Anat 214, 197–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurtado, AM, Hawkes, K, Hill, K, Kaplan, H (1985) Female subsistence strategies among Ache hunter-gatherers of Eastern Paraguay. Hum Ecol 13, 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenike, MR (2001) Nutritional ecology: diet, physical activity and body size. In Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (eds. Panter-Brick, C, Layton, RH, Rowley-Conwy, P), pp. 205–238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, LK (2008) Knee osteoarthritis: influence of work involving heavy lifting, kneeling, climbing stairs or ladders, or kneeling/squatting combined with heavy lifting. Occup Environ Med 65, 72–89.Google Scholar
Jurmain, RD (1977a) Paleoepidemiology of degenerative knee disease. Med Anthropol 1, 1–14.Google Scholar
Jurmain, RD (1977b) Stress and etiology of osteoarthritis. Am J Phys Anthropol 46: 353–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jurmain, RD (1980) The pattern of involvement of appendicular degenerative joint disease. Am J Phys Anthropol 53, 143–150.Google Scholar
Jurmain, RD (1989) Trauma, degenerative disease, and other pathologies among the Gombe chimpanzees. Am J Phys Anthropol 80, 229–237.Google Scholar
Kaplan, H, Thompson, RC, Trumble, BC, et al. (2017) Coronary atherosclerosis in indigenous South American Tsimane: a cross-sectional cohort study. The Lancet 389, 1730–1739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keele, BF, Jones, JH, Terio, KA, et al. (2009) Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz. Nature, 460, 515–519.Google Scholar
Kelly, RL (1992) Mobility/sedentism: concepts, archaeological measures and effects. Ann Rev Anthropol 21, 43–66.Google Scholar
Kendall, FP, Kendall McCreary, F, Provance, PG, Rodgers, M, Romani, W (2005) Muscle Testing and Function with Posture and Pain, 5th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincourt, Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Kochanek, KD, Murphy, SL, Jiaquan Xu, J, Tejada-Vera, B (2016) Deaths: final data for 2014. National Vital Stat Rep 65, 1–121.Google Scholar
Krief, S, Escalante, AA, Pacheco, MA, et al. (2010) On the diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of Plasmodium falciparum from Bonobos. PLoS Pathog 6. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000765.Google Scholar
Kumar, S (2001) Theories of musculoskeletal injury causation. Ergonomics 44, 17–47.Google Scholar
Lane, NE, Bloch, DA, Jones, HH, et al. (1986) Long-distance running, bone density and osteoarthritis. J Am Med Assoc 255, 1147–1151.Google Scholar
Larsen, CS (1995) Biological changes in human populations with agriculture. Ann Rev Anthropol 24, 185–213.Google Scholar
Leendertz, FH, Pauli, G, Mätz-Rensing, K, et al. (2006) Pathogens as drivers of population declines: the importance of systematic monitoring in great apes and other threatened mammals. Biol Conserv 131, 325–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard, WR (2008) Lifestyle, diet, and disease: comparative perspectives on the determinants of chronic health risks. In Evolution in Health and Disease, 2nd ed. (eds. Sterns, SC, Koella, JC), pp. 265–276. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Leonard, WR, Robertson, ML (1997) Comparative primate energetics and hominid evolution. Am J Phys Anthropol 102, 265–281.Google Scholar
Leroy, EM, Rouquet, P, Formenty, P, et al. (2004) Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife. Science 303, 387–390.Google Scholar
Li, G, Buckle, P (1999) Current techniques for assessing physical exposure to work-related musculoskeletal risks with emphasis on posture-based methods. Ergonomics 42, 674–695.Google Scholar
Lloyd, E, Wilson, DS, Sober, E (2011) Evolutionary mismatch and what to do about it: a basic tutorial. Evol Appl, 2–4.Google Scholar
Lovell, NC (1990) Skeletal and dental pathology of free-ranging mountain gorillas. Am J Phys Anthropol 81, 399–412.Google Scholar
Lowenstine, LJ, McManamon, R, Terio, KA (2016) Comparative pathology of aging great apes bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. Vet Pathol 53, 250–276.Google Scholar
Lukasik‐Braum, M, Spelman, L (2008) Chimpanzee respiratory disease and visitation rules at Mahale and Gombe National Parks in Tanzania. Am J Primatol 70, 734–737.Google Scholar
MacNeilage, A (2001) Diet and habitat use of two mountain gorilla groups in contrasting habitats in the Virungas. In Mountain Gorillas: Three Decades of Research at Karisoke (eds. Robbins, MM, Sicotte, P, Stewart, KJ), pp. 265–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Magnusson, M, Pope, MH (1998) A review of the biomechanics and epidemiology of working postures (it isn’t always vibration which is to blame). J Sound Vibr 215, 965–976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malina, RM, Little, BB (2008) Physical activity: the present in the context of the past. Am J Hum Biol 20, 373–391.Google Scholar
Martin, DL, Armelagos, GJ, King, JR (1979) Degenerative joint disease of the long bones in Dickson Mounds. Henry Ford Hosp Med J 27, 60–63.Google Scholar
Matsumoto-Oda, A (2002) Behavioral seasonality in male chimpanzees. Primates 43, 103–117.Google Scholar
McClure, HM (1973) Tumors in nonhuman primates: observations during a six-year period in the Yerkes primate center colony. Am J Phys Anthropol 38, 425–429.Google Scholar
McGrew, WC, Tutin, CEG, Collins, DA, File, SK (1989) Intestinal parasites of sympatric Pan troglodytes and Papio spp. at two sites: Gombe (Tanzania) and Mt. Assirik (Senegal). Am J Primatol 17, 147–155.Google Scholar
McManamon, R, Lowenstine, LJ (2012) Cardiovascular disease in great apes. Zoo Wild Animal Med Curr Ther 7, 408–415.Google Scholar
Moore, SC, Lee, IM, Weiderpass, E, et al. (2016) Association of leisure-time physical activity with risk of 26 types of cancer in 1.44 million adults. JAMA Intern Med 176, 816–825.Google Scholar
Morgado Ramirez, DZ, Strike, S, Lee, R (2017) Vibration transmission of the spine during walking is different between the lumbar and thoracic regions in older adults. Age Aging 46, 982–987.Google Scholar
Muehlenbein, MP (2006) Intestinal parasite infections and fecal steroid levels in wild chimpanzees. Am J Phys Anthropol 130, 546–550.Google Scholar
Muehlenbein, MP, Watts, DP (2010) The costs of dominance: testosterone, cortisol and intestinal parasites in wild male chimpanzees. Biopsychosocial Med 4, 21.Google Scholar
Myers, BJ, Kuntz, RE (1972) A checklist of parasites and commensals reported for the chimpanzee. Primates 13, 433–471.Google Scholar
Neogi, T, Felson, D, Niu, J, et al. (2011) Cartilage loss occurs in the same subregions as subchondral bone attrition: a within-knee subregion-matched approach from the multicenter osteoarthritis study. Arthritis Rheum Arthritis Care Res 61, 1539–1544.Google Scholar
Nicolosi, R, Bell, SJ, Bistrian, BR, et al. (1999) Plasma lipid changes after supplementation with β-glucan fiber from yeast. Am J Clin Nutr 70, 208–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nunn, CL, Rothschild, B, Gittleman, JL (2007) Why are some species more commonly afflicted by arthritis than others? A comparative study of spondyloarthropathy in primates and carnivores. J Evol Biol 20, 460–470.Google Scholar
O’Keefe, JH, Vogel, R, Lavie, CJ, Cordain, L (2011) Exercise like a hunter-gatherer: a prescription for organic physical fitness. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 53, 471–479.Google Scholar
Olshansky, SJ, Passaro, DJ, Hershow, RC, et al. (2005) A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. New Engl J Med 352, 1138–1145.Google Scholar
O’Neil, SP, Novembre, FJ, Hill, AB, et al. (2000) Progressive infection in a subset of HIV-1-positive chimpanzees. J Infect Dis 182, 1051–1062.Google Scholar
Peeters, M, Courgnaud, V, Abela, B, et al. (2002) Risk to human health from a plethora of simian immunodeficiency viruses in primate bushmeat. Emerg Infect Dis 8, 451–457.Google Scholar
Pickering, RB (1979) Hunter-gatherer/agriculturalist arthritic patterns: a preliminary investigation. Henry Ford Hosp Med J 27, 50–53.Google Scholar
Pickering, RB (1984) Patterns of degenerative joint disease in Middle Woodland, Late Woodland, and Mississippian skeletal series from the Lower Illinois Valley. PhD thesis. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Pontzer, H, Wrangham, RW (2004) Climbing and the daily energy cost of locomotion in wild chimpanzees: implications for hominoid evolution. J Hum Evol 46, 315–333.Google Scholar
Pontzer, H, Wrangham, RW (2006) Ontogeny of ranging in wild chimpanzees. Int J Primatol 27, 295–309.Google Scholar
Pontzer, H, Raichlen, DA, Wood, BM, et al. (2012) Hunter-gatherer energetics and human obesity. PLoS One 7, p.e40503.Google Scholar
Pope, MH, Bevins, T, Wilder, DG, et al. (1985) The relationship between anthropometric, postural, muscular, and mobility characteristics of males ages 18–55. Spine 10, 644–648.Google Scholar
Puente, XS, Velasco, G, Gutiérrez-Fernández, A, et al. (2006) Comparative analysis of cancer genes in the human and chimpanzee genomes. BMC Genomics 7, 15.Google Scholar
Punnett, L, Fine, LJ, Keyserling, WM, Herrin, GD, Chaffin, DB (1991) Back disorders and non-neutral trunk postures of automobile assembly workers. Scand J Work Environ Health 17, 337–346.Google Scholar
Pusey, AE, Wilson, ML, Anthony Collins, DA (2008) Human impacts, disease risk, and population dynamics in the chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Am J Primatol 70, 738–744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reininghaus, UA, Morgan, C, Simpson, J, et al. (2008) Unemployment, social isolation, achievement–expectation mismatch and psychosis: findings from the ÆSOP study. Soc Psych Psychiatr Epidemiol 43, 743–751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riddoch, CJ, Anderen, LB, Wedderkopp, N, et al. (2004) Physical activity levels and patterns of 9- and 15-yr-old European children. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36, 86–92.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, E, Aregullin, M, Nishida, T, et al. (1985) Thiarubrine A, a bioactive constituent of Aspilia (Asteraceae) consumed by wild chimpanzees. Experientia 41, 419–420.Google Scholar
Rosseneu, M, Declercq, B, Vandamme, D, et al. (1979) Influence of oral polyunsaturated and saturated phospholipid treatment on the lipid composition and fatty acid profile of chimpanzee lipoproteins. Atherosclerosis 32, 141–153.Google Scholar
Rothschild, BM, Ruehli, FJ (2005a) Comparison of arthritis characteristics in lowland Gorilla gorilla and mountain Gorilla beringei. Am J Primatol 66, 205–218.Google Scholar
Rothschild, BM, Ruehli, FJ (2005b) Etiology of reactive arthritis in Pan paniscus, P. troglodytes troglodytes, and P. troglodytes schweinfurthii. Am J Primatol 66, 219–231.Google Scholar
Salmeron, J, Manson, JE, Stampfer, MJ, et al. (1997) Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 277, 472–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seibold, H, Wolf, RH (1973) Neoplasms and proliferative lesions in 1065 nonhuman primate necropsies. Lab Animal Sci 23, 533–539.Google Scholar
Seiler, BM, Dick, EJ Jr., Guardado‐Mendoza, R, et al. (2009) Spontaneous heart disease in the adult chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). J Med Primatol 38, 51–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, R, Vannabouathong, C, Bains, S, et al. (2011) Meta-analyses in joint arthroplasty: a review of quantity, quality, and impact. J Bone Joint Surg 93, 2304–2309.Google Scholar
Sjogaard, G (1986) Intramuscular changes during long-term contraction. In The Ergonomics of Working Postures (eds. Corlett, N, Wilson, J, Manenica, I), pp. 136–143. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Smeathers, JE (1989) Transient vibrations caused by heel strike. J Eng Med 203, 181–186.Google Scholar
Spector, TD, Cooper, C, Cushnaghan, J, Hart, DJ, Dieppe, P (1992) A Radiographic Atlas of Knee Osteoarthritis. London: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Strong, VJ, Grindlay, D, Redrobe, S, Cobb, M, White, K (2016) A systematic review of the literature relating to captive great ape morbidity and mortality. J Zoo Wildlife Medicine 47, 697–710.Google Scholar
Takasaki, H, Hunt, KD (1987) Further medicinal plant consumption in wild chimpanzees? Afr Study Monog 8, 125–128.Google Scholar
Terio, KA, Kinsel, MJ, Raphael, J, et al. (2011) Pathologic lesions in chimpanzees (Pan trogylodytes schweinfurthii) from Gombe National Park, Tanzania, 2004–2010). J Zoo Wildlife Medicine, 42, 597–607.Google Scholar
Tursi, A (2016) Diverticulosis today: unfashionable and still under-researched. Therapeut Adv Gastroenterol 9, 213–228.Google Scholar
Tutin, CG (1996) Ranging and social structure of lowland gorillas in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. In Great Ape Societies (eds. McGrew, WC, Marchant, LF, Nishida, T), pp. 58–70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Urquhart, DM, Tobing, J, Hanna, FS, et al. (2011) What is the effect of physical activity on the knee joint? A systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43, 432–442.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics (2012) The National Health Interview Survey. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 2012-1580.Google Scholar
Varki, A, Altheide, TK (2005) Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack. Genome Res 15, 1746–1758.Google Scholar
Varki, NM, Varki, A (2015) On the apparent rarity of epithelial cancers in captive chimpanzees. Phil Trans R Soc B 370, 214–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verschueren, SM, Roelants, M, Delecluse, C, et al. (2004) Effect of 6‐month whole body vibration training on hip density, muscle strength, and postural control in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Bone Mineral Res 19, 352–359.Google Scholar
Videan, EN, Lammey, ML, Lee, DR (2011) Diagnosis and treatment of degenerative joint disease in a captive male chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci 50, 263–266.Google Scholar
Vieira, ER, Kumar, S (2004) Working postures: a literature review. J Occup Rehab 14, 143–159.Google Scholar
Vignon, E, Valat, J, Rossignol, M, et al. (2006) Osteoarthritis of the knee and hip and activity: a systematic international review and synthesis (OASIS). Joint Bone Spine 73, 442–455.Google Scholar
Waller, C, Hayes, D, Block, JE, London, NJ (2011) Unload it: the key to the treatment of knee osteoarthritis. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthroscop 19, 1823–1829.Google Scholar
Waters, DJ, Sakr, WA, Hayden, DW, et al. (1998) Workgroup 4: spontaneous prostate carcinoma in dogs and nonhuman primates. Prostate 36, 64–67.Google Scholar
Weickert, MO, Möhlig, M, Schöfl, C, et al. (2006) Cereal fiber improves whole-body insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese women. Diabet Care 29, 775–780.Google Scholar
Williams, JM, Lonsdorf, EV, Wilson, ML, et al. (2008) Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Am J Primatol 70, 766–777.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW (1977) Feeding behaviors of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. In Primate Ecology (ed. Clutton-Brock, TH), pp. 503–538. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW, Nishida, T (1983) Aspilia: a puzzle in the feeding behaviour of chimpanzees. Primates 24, 276–282.Google Scholar
Yamagiwa, J, Mwanza, N, Yumoto, T, Maruhashi, T (1994) Seasonal change in the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas. Primates 35, 1.Google Scholar
Yazdanbakhsh, M, Kremsner, PG, Van Ree, R (2002) Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science, 296, 490–494.Google Scholar
Yuan, Z, Kang, G, Ma, F, et al. (2016) Recapitulating cross-species transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVcpz to humans by using humanized BLT mice. J Virol 90, 7728–7739.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y (2011) Cartilage loss occurs in the same subregions as subchondral bone attrition: a within-knee subregion-matched approach from the multicenter osteoarthritis study. Arthritis Rheumat-Arthritis Care Res 61, 1539–1544.Google Scholar
Zhang, YQ, Hannan, MT, Chaisson, CE, et al. (2000) Bone mineral density and risk of incident and progressive radiographic knee osteoarthritis in women: the Framingham Study. J Rheumatol 27, 1032–1037.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×