Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-tj2md Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T15:24:05.780Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - Spectral classification: From the Henry Draper Catalogue to the MK system and beyond

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2014

John B. Hearnshaw
John B. Hearnshaw
Affiliation:
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Get access

Summary

The first International Astronomical Union meeting in Rome, May 1922

Solar Union in Bonn in 1913 Frank Schlesinger had been able to conclude, as a result of the questionnaire [1] to 28 prominent spectroscopists from the Committee on the Classification of Stellar Spectra, that ‘… the preference for the Draper classification is nearly unanimous, but… the general feeling among investigators is opposed at the present time of any system as a permanent one’ [2]. (The ISU questionnaire of 1911 is discussed in Section 5.10.)

In practice 1913 represents the point when the Harvard system was universally adopted. Nine years later, at the first meeting of the newly formed International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Rome, in May 1922, the earlier temporary acceptance of this system was formally and unanimously approved as permanent. The chairman of the Spectral Classification Committee was then Walter Adams. By this time six volumes of the Henry Draper Catalogue had been published and the classification of nearly a quarter of a million stars had been completed by Annie Cannon six years previously. The adoption of the Harvard system was therefore no longer an issue: the Adams report prescribed that ‘the Draper Classification or “Harvard System” … should be the basis on which any further extensions should be built. Classification on other and different systems should be abandoned permanently’ [3], although it was conceded that in ‘cases of great uncertainty Secchi's types may be employed’.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Analysis of Starlight
Two Centuries of Astronomical Spectroscopy
 , pp. 152 - 192
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

[1] Schlesinger, F., Astrophys. J., 33, 260 (1911). See also Chapter 5.
[2] Schlesinger, F., correspondence to G. E. Hale, 18 Dec. 1912, quoted by D. H. DeVorkin, Isis, 72, 29 (1981).
[3] Adams, W. S., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 1, 95 (1922); also in Astrophys. J., 57, 65 (1923).
[4] Maury, A. C. and Pickering, E. C., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 28 (Part I), 1 (1897).
[5] Cannon, A. J. and Pickering, E. C., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 98, 1 (1923) (the 8th volume of the Henry Draper Catalogue).
[6] Adams, W. S., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 3, 162 (1929).
[7] Cannon, A. J., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 28 (Part II), 1 (1901).
[8] Plaskett, H. H., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 1, 325 (1922).
[9] Fowler, R. H. and Milne, E. A., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 83, 403 (1923).
[10] Curtiss, R. H., Handbuch der Astrophys., V (Part I), 1 (1932).
[11] Plaskett, J. S., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 2, 287 (1924).
[12] Plaskett, J. S., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 2, 117 (1925).
[13] Payne, C. H., Harvard Coll. Observ. Circ., 263 (1924).
[14] Payne, C. H., Harvard Coll. Observ. Bull., 855 (1928).
[15] Pearce, J. A., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 5, 110 (1930).
[16] Morgan, W. W., Keenan, P. C. and Kellman, E., An Atlas of Stellar Spectra with an Outline of Spectral Classification, University of Chicago Press (1943).
[17] Petrie, R. M., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 7, 321 (1947).
[18] Underhill, A. B., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 8, 385 (1950).
[19] Johnson, H. L. and Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J., 117, 313 (1953).
[20] Morgan, W. W., Hiltner, W. A., Neff, J. S., Garrison, R. and Osterbrock, D. E., Astrophys. J., 142, 974(1965).
[21] Walborn, N. R., Astrophys. J., 167, L31 (1971).
[22] Walborn, N. R., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 23, 257 (1971).
[23] Conti, P. S. and Alschuler, W. R., Astrophys. J., 170, 325 (1971).
[24] Botto, P. and Hack, M., Mem. Soc. Astron. Italiana, 33, 159 (1962).
[25] Rogerson, J. B., Spitzer, L., Drake, J. F., Dressler, K., Jenkins, E. B., Morton, D. C. and York, D. G., Astrophys. J. Lett., 181, 97(1973).
[26] Snow, T. P. and Morton, D. C., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 32, 429 (1976).
[27] Walborn, N. R., Nichols-Bohlin, J. and Panek, R. J., An IUE atlas of O-type spectra from 1200 A to 1900 i,NASA Ref. Publ. 1155 (1985).
[28] Walborn, N. R. and Nichols-Bohlin, J., in Eight years of UV astronomy with IUE, ed. E. J., Rolfe, ESA SP-263, publ. ESA, p. 433 (1986).
[29] Walborn, N. R., Astrophys. J., 164, L67 (1971).
[30] Walborn, N. R., Astrophys. J., 161, L149 (1970).
[31] Walborn, N. R., Howarth, I. D., Lennon, D. J., Massey, P., Oey, M. S., Moffat, A. F. J., Skalkowski, G., Morrell, N. I., Drissen, L. and Parker, J. W., Astrophys. J., 123, 2754 (2002).
[32] Huggins, W. and Miller, W. A., Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 154, 437 (1864).
[33] Lockyer, J. N., Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 186A, 73 (1894).
[34] Campbell, W. W., Astron. and Astrophys., 13, 384 and 494 (1894).
[35] Wilsing, J. and Scheiner, J., Astron. Nachrichten, 159, 181 (1902); see also Astrophys. J., 16, 234 (1902).
[36] Wolf, M., Sitzungsber. der Heidelberger Akad. der Wissenschaften, Math.-naturwiss. Klasse, vol. 27 (1911).
[37] Huggins, W., Proc. R. Soc., 33, 425 (1882).
[38] Wright, W. H., Publ. Lick Observ., 13, 191 (1918).
[39] Russell, H. N., Dugan, R. S. and Stewart, J. Q., Astronomy, p. 837 (1927).
[40] Bohr, N., Philos. Mag., 26 (ser.6), 1 (1913).
[41] Fowler, A., Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 214 (A), 225 (1914).
[42] Cannon, A. J., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 76, 19 (1916).
[43] Boyce, J. C., Menzel, D. H., Payne, C. H., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 19, 581 (1933).
[44] Bowen, I. S., Nature, 120, 473 (1927). See also Bowen, I. S., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 39, 295 (1927) and Bowen, I. S., Astrophys. J., 67, 1 (1928).
[45] Bowen, I. S., American Institute of Physics, Oral History Interview with I. S. Bowen, p. 11 (1968).Google Scholar
[46] Wilson, O. C., Sky and Tel., 45, 212 (1973).
[47] Page, T., Astrophys. J., 96, 78 (1942).
[48] Aller, L. H., Gaseous Nebulae. New York:J. Wiley & Sons (1956).
[49] Wurm, K., Handbuch der Physik, 50, 138 (1958) (see p. 146).
[50] Bowen, I. S. and Wyse, A. B., Lick Observ. Bull., 19 (no. 495), 1 (1939).
[51] Wyse, A. B., Astrophys. J., 95, 346 (1942).
[52] For instrumental developments on the Mt Wilson 100-inch coudé see: Dunham, T., Vistas Astron., 2, 1223 (1956).
[53] Moll, W. J. H., Proc. Phys. Soc., 33, 207 (1931).
[54] Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 74, 225 (1931).
[55] Milne, E. A., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 104, 112 (1944).
[56] Williams, E. G., Astrophys. J., 83, 279 (1936).
[57] Underhill, A. B., The Early Type Stars, Astrophys. and Space Sci. Library, publ. D. Reidel Publ. Co. (1966), p. 15.
[58] Rudnick, P., Astrophys. J., 83, 439 (1936).
[59] Williams, E. G., Astrophys. J., 83, 309 (1936).
[60] Struve, O., Nature, 122, 994 (1928). See also ref. [54].
[61] Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 78, 73 (1933).
[62] Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 82, 252 (1935). See also Struve, O. and Wurm, K., Astrophys. J., 88, 84 (1938).
[63] Goldberg, L., Astrophys. J., 89, 623 (1939).
[64] Stark, J., Ann. der Phys., 21, 422 (1906) and Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physik. Gesellschaft, 8, 109 (1906).
[65] Atkinson, R. d'E., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 82, 396 (1922).
[66] Russell, H. N. and Stewart, J. Q., Astrophys. J., 59, 204 (1924).
[67] Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 69, 173 (1929).
[68] Adams, W. S. and Joy, A. H., Astrophys. J., 56, 242 (1922) and ibid. 57, 294 (1923).
[69] Elvey, C. T., Astrophys. J., 71, 191 (1930).
[70] Elvey, C. T. and Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 72, 277 (1930).
[71] Elvey, C. T., Astrophys. J., 74, 298 (1931).
[72] Pannekoek, A. and Verweij, S., Proc. Amsterdam Acad., 38, 479 (1935).
[73] Verweij, S., Publ. Astron. Inst., University of Amsterdam, no. 5 (1936).
[74] Holtsmark, J., Phys. Zeitschr., 20, 162 (1919).
[75] Woolley, R., Observ., 60, 239 (1937).
[76] Edwards, D. L., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 83, 47 (1922).
[77] Lockyer, W. J. S., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 82, 226 (1922).
[78] Edwards, D. L., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 87, 364 (1927).
[79] Lindblad, B., Astrophys. J., 55, 85 (1922).
[80] Fehrenbach, Ch., Handbuch der Physik, 50, 1 (1958).
[81] Lindblad, B., Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scient. Upsala (series IV) 6 (no. 5) (1925) and ibid., Medd. Astr. Obs., Upsala, no. 11 (1926), no. 18 (1927), no. 28 (1927).
[82] Schalén, C., Arkivför Mat. Astron. och Fysik, 19A No. 33 (1926).
[83] Lindblad, B. and Schalén, C., Arkivför Mat. Astron. och Fysik, 20A, No. 7 (1927).
[84] Robertson, H. P. and Dewey, J. M., Phys. Rev., 31, 973 (1928).
[85] Pannekoek, A., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 98, 694 (1938).
[86] Inglis, D. R. and Teller, E., Astrophys. J., 90, 439 (1939).
[87] Mohler, F., Astrophys. J., 90, 429 (1939).
[88] Unsöld, A. and Struve, O., Astrophys. J., 91, 365 (1940).
[89] Miczaika, G. R., Zeitschr. für Astrophys., 25, 268 (1948); ibid. 29, 262 (1951).
[90] Stock, M. J., Stock, J., García, J. and Sánchez, N., Rev. Mexicana Astron. y Astrofís., 38, 127 (2002).
[91] Shapley, H., Harvard Coll. Observ. Circ., 278 (1925).
[92] Adams, W. S., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 5, 180 (1936).
[93] Kapteyn, J. C., Plan of Selected Areas., Groningen: Astron. Lab., (1906).
[94] Schwassmann, A., Vierteljahresschriftder Astron. Ges., 70, 352 (1935).
[95] Schwassmann, A., Bergedorfer Spektraldurchmusterung, 1 (1935), 2 (1938), 3 (1947), 4 (1951) and 5 (1953).
[96] Becker, F., Himmelswelt, 46, 41 (1936) has given a general review of the Potsdamer Spektraldurchmusterung. The survey was published in six parts: Becker, F., Publik. der astrophysik. Observ. Potsdam, 27 (parts 1, 2 and 3) (1931). Brück, H. A., ibid. 28 (part 4) (1935). Becker, F., ibid. 28 (parts 5 and 6) (1938).
[97] Hoffleit, D., Astrophys. J., 90, 621 (1939).
[98] Becker, F., Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften, p. 174 (1930) and p. 86 (1932).
[99] Brück, H. A., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 105, 206 (1945).
[100] Payne, C. H., Astrophys. J., 90, 321 (1939).
[101] Vyssotsky, A. N., Astrophys. J., 93, 425 (1941).
[102] Seares, F. H. and Joyner, M. C., Astrophys. J., 98, 244 (1943).
[103] Humason, M. L., Astrophys. J., 76, 224 (1932).
[104] Adams, W. S., Joy, A. H., Humason, M. L. and Brayton, A. M., Astrophys. J., 81, 187 (1935).
[105] Öhman, Y., Arkivför Mat. Astron. och Fysik, 20A, (no. 23) (1927).
[106] Lindblad, B. and Stenquist, E., Astronomiska Iakttagelser och Undersökningar â Stockholms Observatorium, 11 (no. 12) (1934).
[107] Ramberg, J., Stockholms Observ. Ann., 13 (no. 9) (1941).
[108] Elvius, T., Stockholms Observ. Ann., 16 (no. 5) (1951).
[109] Malmquist, G., Uppsala Observ. Ann., 4 (no. 9) (1960).
[110] Cambresier, Y. and Rosenfeld, L., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 93, 710(1933).
[111] Huggins, Sir Wm. and Lady, Huggins, An Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra, William Wesley and Son, p. 85 (1899).
[112] Yü, C. S., Lick Observ. Bull., 12 (no. 375), 104 (1926).
[113] Barbier, D. and Morguleff, N., Astrophys. J., 136, 315 (1962).
[114] Barbier, D. and Morguleff, N., Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. Sci, Paris, 258, 4209(1964).
[115] Andrillat, Y., Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. Sci., Paris, 261, 321 (1965). See also: Andrillat, Y. and Morguleff, N., Ann. d'Astrophys., 29, 17 (1966).
[116] Wing, R. F., Peimbert, M. and Spinrad, H., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 79, 351 (1967).
[117] Chalonge, D., Contrib. Inst. d'Astrophys. (sér. A) no. 97 (1951). Chalonge here gives a general review of the French programme on the Jungfraujoch and a list of publications from the programme up to 1951.
[118] Barbier, D., Chalonge, D. and Vassy, E., J. de Physique et le Radium, 6, 137 (1935). Also Arnulf, A., Barbier, D., Chalonge. D. and Canavaggia, R., J. des Observateurs, 19, 149 (1936).
[119] Barbier, D. and Chalonge, D., Ann. d'Astrophys., 2, 254 (1939).
[120] Barbier, D. and Chalonge, D., Ann. d'Astrophys., 4, 30 (1941).
[121] Barbier, D., Chalonge, D. and Canavaggia, R., Ann. d'Astrophys, 10, 195 (1947).
[122] Chalonge, D. and Divan, L., Ann. d'Astrophys., 15, 201 (1952).
[123] Chalonge, D. and Divan, L., Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. Sci., Paris, 327, 298 (1953). Also Chalonge, D., Ann. d'Astrophys, 19, 258 (1956).
[124] Divan, L., Ann. d'Astrophys., 19, 287 (1956).
[125] Berger, J., Fringant, A.-M. and Menneret, C., Ann. d'Astrophys., 19, 294(1956).
[126] Chalonge, D., Intl. Astron. Union Symp, 24, 77 (1966).
[127] Chalonge, D. and Divan, L., Intl. Astron. Union Symp., 72, 143 (1976).
[128] Pecker, J.-C., Quarterly J. R. Astron. Soc., 21, 481 (1980).
[129] Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J, 77, 291 (1933).
[130] Russell, H. N., Payne-Gaposchkin, C. H. and Menzel, D. H., Astrophys. J, 81, 107 (1935).
[131] Morgan, W. W., American Institute of Physics, Oral History Interview with W. W. Morgan (1978) pp. 25–27.Google Scholar
[132] Scheiner, J., Vierteljahresschr. der Astron. Ges., 33, 66 (1898).
[133] Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J, 85, 380 (1937).
[134] Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J, 87, 460 (1938).
[135] Bottlinger, K. F., Veröffent. der Universitätssternwartezu Berlin-Babelsberg, 3 (part IV) (1923).
[136] Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J., 91, 506 (1940).
[137] Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J, 95, 461 (1942).
[138] Struve, O., Sky and Tel, 12, 184 (1953).
[139] Joy, A. H., Astrophys. J., 98, 240 (1943).
[140] Spencer Jones, H., Observ., 65, 127 (1943).
[141] Morgan, W. W. and Roman, N. G., Astrophys. J, 112, 362 (1950).
[142] Bidelman, W. P., Astrophys. J, 113, 304(1950).
[143] Bidelman, W. P., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 66, 249 (1954).
[144] Morgan, W. W., Publ. Observ. Univ. Michigan, 10, 33 (1951).
[145] Nassau, J. J. and Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J, 113, 141 (1950).
[146] Gould, B. A., Am. J. Sci., 8, 325 (1874).
[147] Morgan, W. W., Sharpless, S. and Osterbrock, D., Astron. J., 57, 3 (1952).
[148] Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E. and Code, A. D., Astrophys. J, 118, 318 (1953).
[149] Keenan, P. C. and Morgan, W. W., Astrophysics: A Topical Symposium, ed. J. A., Hynek. New York: McGraw-Hill, Chapter 1, p. 12(1951).
[150] Roman, N. G., Astrophys. J., 112, 554 (1950).
[151] Roman, N. G., Astrophys. J., 116, 122 (1952).
[152] Roman, N. G., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 2, 195 (1955).
[153] Keenan, P. C. and Morgan, W. W., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 11 A, 346 (Appendix II) (1962).
[154] Keenan, P. C., Stars and Stellar Systems, vol. 3: Basic Astronomical Data, ed. K. A., Strand. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Chapter 8, p. 78 (1963).
[155] Miczaika, G. R., Astron. Nachrichten, 270, 249 (1940).
[156] Campbell, W. W., Astrophys. J, 13, 98 (1901).
[157] Morgan, W. W. and Keenan, P. C., Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys, 11, 29(1973).
[158] Keenan, P. C. and McNeil, R. C., An Atlas of the Spectra of the Cooler Stars. Columbus: Ohio State University Press (1976).
[159] Morgan, W. W., Abt, H. A. and Tapscott, J. W., Revised MK Spectral Atlas for Stars Earlier than the Sun.Yerkes and Kitt Peak Observatories (1978).
[160] Jaschek, C., Conde, H. and de Sierra, A. C., Catalogue of stellar spectra classified in the MK system,Observ. Astron. Universidad Nacional de la Plata, Serie Astron., 28 (2) (1964).
[161] Morgan, W. W., Ricerche Astronomiche, 9, 59 (Intl. Astron. Union Coll., 47) (1979).
[162] Hale, G. E., Ellerman, F. and Parkhurst, J. A., Publ. Yerkes Observ., 2, 251 (1903).
[163] Rufus, W. C., Publ. Observ. Univ. Michigan, 2, 103 (1916).
[164] Pickering, E. C., Harvard Coll. Observ. Circ, 145 (1908).
[165] Swan, W., Edinburgh Trans, 21 (ser.3), 411 (1857).
[166] Lockyer, J. N., Proc. R. Soc, 27, 308 (1878).
[167] Kayser, H. and Runge, C., Wiedemanns Ann. der Phys., 38, 80 (1889).
[168] Newall, H. F., Baxandall, F. E. and Butler, C. P., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, 76, 640 (1916).
[169] Merrill, P. W., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 38, 175 (1926).
[170] Sanford, R. F., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 38, 177 (1926).
[171] Shane, C. D., Lick Observ. Bull., 13 (no. 396), 123 (1928).
[172] McKellar, A., J. R. Astron. Soc. Canada, 41, 147 (1947).
[173] Kleman, B., Astrophys. J, 123, 162 (1956).
[174] McKellar, A., Astrophys. J, 108, 453 (1948).
[175] Swings, P., McKellar, A. and Rao, K. N., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, 113, 571 (1953).
[176] Clusius, K. and Douglas, A. E., Cana. J. Physics, 32, 319 (1954).
[177] Shane, C. D., Lick Observ. Bull., 10 (no. 329), 79 (1920).
[178] Keenan, P. C. and Morgan, W. W., Astrophys. J., 94, 501 (1941).
[179] Pickering, E. C. and Fleming, W., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 26 (Part II), 1 (1897).
[180] Yamashita, Y., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ., Victoria, 13 (no. 5), 67 (1967); ibid. Ann. Tokyo Astron. Observ., 13 (series 2), 169 (1972) and 15 (series 2), 47 (1975).
[181] Warner, B., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 126, 61 (1963).
[182] Nassau, J. J. and Colacevich, A., Astrophys. J., 111, 199 (1950).
[183] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J., 79, 183 (1934).
[184] Wildt, R., Astrophys. J., 84, 303 (1936).
[185] Phillips, J. G. and Brewer, L., Mém. Soc. Roy. des Sciences de Liège, (4e série), 15, 341 (1955). (6th Liège International Astrophysics Colloquium).
[186] Fujita, Y., Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan, 1, 171 (1950).
[187] Russell, H. N., Astrophys. J., 79, 317 (1934).
[188] Baly, E. C. C., Spectroscopy, p. 444 (1905).
[189] Bouigue, R., Ann. d'Astrophys., 17, 104 (1954).
[190] Richer, H. B., Astrophys. J., 167, 521 (1971).
[191] Yamashita, Y., Ann. Tokyo Astron. Observ., 13 (series 2), 169(1972).
[192] Gordon, C. P., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 83, 667 (1971).
[193] Sanford, R. F., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 53, 255 (1941).
[194] King, A. S. and Birge, R. T., Nature, 124, 127 (1929).
[195] King, A. S. and Birge, R. T., Astrophys. J., 72, 19 (1930).
[196] McKellar, A., Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Observ, Victoria, 7, 395(1949).
[197] Sanford, R. F., Astrophys. J., 111, 262 (1950).
[198] Dominy, J. F., Hinkle, K. H., Lambert, D. L., Hall, D. N. B. and Ridgway, S. T.Astrophys. J., 223, 949 (1978).
[199] Johnson, H. R., O'Brien, G. T. and Climenhaga, J. L., Astrophys. J., 254, 175 (1982).
[200] Lambert, D. L., Gustafsson, B., Eriksson, K. and Hinkle, K. H.Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 62, 373 (1986).
[201] Abia, C. and Isern, J., Astrophys. J., 460, 443 (1996).
[202] Lloyd Evans, T., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 220, 723 (1986).
[203] Cameron, A. G. W., Astrophys. J., 121, 144 (1955).
[204] Eggen, O. J., Astrophys. J., 174, 45 (1972).
[205] Blanco, V., Rev. Mexicana Astron. y Astrofís., 19, 25 (1989).
[206] McClure, R. D., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 109, 256 (1997).
[207] Keenan, P. C., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 105, 905 (1993).
[208] Tsuji, T., J. Astrophys. & Astron., 2, 95 (1981).
[209] Tsuji, T., J. Astrophys. & Astron., 2, 253 (1981).
[210] Barnbaum, C., Stone, R. P. S. and Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 105, 419(1996).
[211] Utsumi, K., Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan, 19, 342 (1967).
[212] Fujita, Y., Space Sci. Rev., 25, 89 (1980).
[213] Wallerstein, G. and Knapp, G. R., Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36, 369 (1998).
[214] Stephenson, C. B., A general catalogue of cool carbon stars. Warner & Swasey Observ., 1, no. 4, 1 (1973).
[215] Henize, K. G., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 30, 491 (1976).
[216] Stephenson, C. B., A general catalogue of cool carbon stars, 2nd ed. Warner & Swasey Observ., 3, 53 (1989).
[217] Alksinis, A., Balklavs, A., Dzervitis, U., Eglitis, I., Paupers, O. and Pundure, I., Baltic Astron., 10, 1 (2001).
[218] Fleming, W., Ann. Harvard Coll. Observ., 56, 165 (1912).
[219] Merrill, P. W., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific,, 35, 217 (1923).
[220] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J, 56, 457 (1922).
[221] Joy, A. H., Q. J. R. Astron. Soc., 3, 45 (1962).
[222] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J., 65, 23 (1927).
[223] Bobrovnikoff, N. T., Astrophys. J., 79, 483 (1934).
[224] Davis, D. N., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific,, 46, 267 (1934).
[225] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J., 105, 360 (1947); ibid. 107, 303 (1948).
[226] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J., 106, 274(1947).
[227] Merrill, P. W., Astrophys. J., 116, 21 (1952). See also Merrill, P. W., Trans. Int. Astron. Union, 8, 832 (1954).
[228] Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J., 107, 420 (1948).
[229] Merrill, P. W., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 51, 356 (1939).
[230] Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J., 120, 484 (1954).
[231] Tsuji, T., Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan, 14, 222 (1962).
[232] Catchpole, R. M. and Feast, M. W., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 154, 197(1971).
[233] Boesgaard, A. M., Astrophys. J., 161, 163 (1970).
[234] Vanture, A. D. and Wallerstein, G., Astrophys. J., 564, 395 (2002).
[235] Scalo, J. M., Astrophys. J., 194, 361 (1974).
[236] Ake, T. B., Astrophys. J., 234, 538 (1979).
[237] Eggen, O. J., Astrophys. J., 177, 489 (1972).
[238] Yorka, S. B. and Wing, R. F., Astron. J., 84, 1010 (1979).
[239] Smith, V. V. and Lambert, D. L., Astrophys. J., 333, 219 (1988).
[240] McClure, R. D., Fletcher, J. M. and Nemec, J. M., Astrophys. J., 238, L35 (1980).
[241] Jorissen, A. and Mayor, M., Astron. & Astrophys., 198, 187 (1988).
[242] Jorissen, A. and Mayor, M., Astron. & Astrophys., 260, 115 (1992).
[243] Johnson, H. R., Intl. Astron. Union Symp., 151, 157 (1992).
[244] Jorissen, A., Frayer, D. T., Johnson, H. R., Mayor, M. and Smith, V. V., Astron. & Astrophys., 271, 463 (1993).
[245] van Eck, S., Jorissen, A., Udry, S., Mayor, M. and Pernier, B., Astron. & Astrophys., 329, 971 (1998).
[246] van Eck, S. and Jorissen, A., Astron. & Astrophys., 360, 196 (2000).
[247] Keenan, P. C. and Boeshaar, P. C., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 43, 379 (1980).
[248] Smith, V. V. and Wallerstein, G., Astrophys. J., 273, 742 (1983).
[249] Wallerstein, G. and Dominy, J. F., Astrophys. J., 330, 937 (1988).
[250] Smith, V. V.and Lambert, D. L., Astrophys. J., 311, 843 (1986).
[251] Stephenson, C. B., General catalogue of galactic S stars, 2nd ed. Warner & Swasey Observ., Case Western Reserve Univ., 3, no. 1, 1 (1984).
[252] Bobrovnikoff, N. T., Publ. Am. Astron. Soc., 8, 209 (1936).
[253] Bobrovnikoff, N. T., Astrophys. J., 89, 301 (1939).
[254] Nassau, J. J., van Albada, G. B. and Keenan, P. C., Astrophys. J., 109, 333 (1949).
[255] Keenan, P. C. and Schroeder, L. W., Astrophys. J., 115, 82 (1951).
[256] Nassau, J. J. and Cameron, D. M., Astrophys. J., 119, 175 (1954).
[257] Cameron, D. M. and Nassau, J. J., Astrophys. J., 122, 177 (1955).
[258] Öhman, Y., Astrophys. J., 80, 171 (1934).
[259] Olmsted, C. M., Astrophys. J., 27, 66 (1908).
[260] Fowler, A., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 67, 530 (1907); see also: ibid., Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 209A, 447 (1909).
[261] Joy, A. H., Astrophys. J., 63, 281 (1926); see p. 327.
[262] Öhman, Y., Stockholm Observ. Ann., nos. 3 and 8 (1936).
[263] Spinrad, H. and Wood, D. B., Astrophys. J., 141, 109 (1965).
[264] Garrison, R. F. (ed.), The MK Process and Stellar Classification, University of Toronto (1984).
[265] Corbally, C. J., Gray, R. O. and Garrison, R. F. (eds.), The MK Process at 50 Years, Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser. 60 (1994).
[266] Gray, R. O. and Corbally, C. J., Stellar Spectral Classification, Princeton Univ. Press (2009).
[267] Keenan, P. C., Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 99, 713 (1987).
[268] Corbally, C. J., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 237 (1994).
[269] Corral, L. J., Peña, J. H., Peniche, R. and Hirata, I., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser. 60, 25 (1994).
[270] Gray, D. F., in The MK Process and Stellar Classification, University of Toronto, p. 112 (1984).
[271] Walborn, N. R., in The MK Process and Stellar Classification, University of Toronto, p. 125 (1984).
[272] Corbally, C. J., Intl. Astron. Union Symp, 167, 241 (1995).
[273] Kurtz, M. J., in The MK Process and Stellar Classifìcation, University of Toronto, p. 136 (1984).
[274] von Hippel, T., Storrie-Lombardi, M. J. and Storrie-Lombardi, M. C., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 289(1994).
[275] Weaver, W. B., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 303 (1994).
[276] La Sala, J., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 312 (1994).
[277] Penprase, B. E., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 325 (1994).
[278] Christlieb, N., Grasshoff, G., Nelke, A. and Wisotki, L., in Wide-field spectroscopy, ed. E., Kontizas, M., Kontizas, D. H., Morgan and G. P., Vettolani, Astrophys. & Space Sci. Library. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 212, 109 (1997).
[279] Houk, N. and Cowley, A. P., University of Michigan Catalogue of two-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars. Vol. 1. Declinations -90° to -53°.Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan, (1975).
[280] Houk, N., University of Michigan Catalogue of two-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars. Vol. 2. Declinations —53° to —40°. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan, (1978).
[281] Houk, N., University of Michigan Catalogueof two-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars. Vol. 3. Declinations —40° to —26°. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan, (1982).
[282] Houk, N. and Smith-Moore, M., University of Michigan Catalogue of two-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars. Vol. 4. Declinations —26° to —12°.Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan, (1988).
[283] Houk, N. and Swift, C., University of Michigan Catalogue oftwo-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars. Vol. 5. Declinations —12° to +5°. Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan, (1999).
[284] Houk, N., in The MK Process and Stellar Classification, University of Toronto, p. 85 (1984).
[285] Houk, N., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 60, 285 (1994).
[286] Kumar, S. S., Astrophys. J., 137, 1121 (1963).
[287] Becklin, E. E. and Zuckerman, B., Nature, 336, 656 (1988).
[288] Kirkpatrick, J. D., Allard, F., Bida, T., Zuckerman, B., Becklin, E. E., Chabrier, G. and Baraffe, I., Astrophys. J., 519, 834(1999).
[289] Nakajima, T., Oppenheimer, B. R., Kulkarni, S. R., Golimowski, D. A., Matthews, K. and Durrance, S. T., Nature, 378, 463 (1995).
[290] Oppenheimer, B. R., Kulkarni, S. R., Matthews, K. and Van Kerwijk, M. H., Astrophys. J., 502, 932 (1995).
[291] Basri, G., Marcy, G. W. and Graham, J. R., Astrophys. J., 458, 600 (1996).
[292] Rebolo, R., Zapatero-Osorio, M. R. and Martín, E. L., Nature, 377, 129(1995).
[293] Basri, G., Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 38, 485 (2000).
[294] Rebolo, R., Martín, E. L. and Magazzù, A., Astrophys. J, 389, L83 (1992).
[295] Nelson, L., Rappaport, S. and Chiang, E., Astrophys. J., 413, 364(1993).
[296] Rebolo, R., Martín, E., Basri, G., Marcy, G. W. and Zapatero-Osorio, M. R., Astrophys. J, 469, L53 (1996).
[297] Tinney, C. G., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, 296, L42 (1998).
[298] Kirkpatrick, J. D., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 134, 405 (1998).
[299] Kirkpatrick, J. D., Reid, I. N., Liebert, J., Cutri, R. M., Nelson, B., Beichman, C. A., Dahn, C. C., Monet, D. G., Gizis, J. E. and Skrutskie, M. F., Astrophys. J., 519, 802 (1999).
[300] Martín, E. L., Basri, G., Delfosse, X. and Forveille, T., Astron. & Astrophys, 327, L29 (1997).
[301] Kirkpatrick, J. D., Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 43, 195 (2005).
[302] Burgasser, A. J., Kirkpatrick, J. D., Brown, M. E., Reid, I. N., Burrows, A., Liebert, J., Matthews, K., Gizis, J. E., Dahn, C. C., Monet, D. G., Cutri, R. M. and Skrutskie, M. F., Astrophys. J, 564, 421 (2002).
[303] Kirkpatrick, J. D., Astron. Soc. Pacific Conf. Ser., 212, 20 (2000).

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×