This chapter considers what arguments can be offered to defend patents (the normative question). It revisits the three types of argument introduced in Chapter 2: the labour, utilitarian and personality arguments.

This chapter examines the discourses of the perceived role of the university and how this relates to the constructions of knowledge and its implications for pedagogy, research, and academic freedom. Furthermore, it examines the role of the university transnationally going beyond the familiar democratic contexts, taking account of increased globalisation and its sociopolitical implications for academic freedom and the production of knowledge. University missions illustrate a range of framings in terms of the conceptions of ‘truth’, ‘public good’, and ‘knowledge economy’, and how these conceptions are translated into curricula objectives is explored in the different contexts of Lebanon, the UAE, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The chapter examines the developments in the field of Latin studies in different periods and in different countries and institutions. Section 1 gives an outline of the history and the status of Latin studies in the schools and universities in a variety of continents and countries, over a certain period of time and in politically and ideologically distinct phases. The chapter analyses the diverging methods and research issues in Latin studies resulting from different institutional conditions. It scrutinises the influence of western European educational institutions in which Latin has been taught on individual academic disciplines also outside Europe, and raises the question whether they are determined by national or ideological schools of thought. Section 2 contains case studies seeking to determine the extent to which characteristic ‘national’ differences impinge on research in Latin. Using the example of critical editions of specific Latin texts, of the developments in the commentary tradition and of approaches derived from theoretical discourses elsewhere, the chapter attempts to illustrate the persistence or slowdown of national traditions in Latin studies to the present day.

This chapter offers three main historical perspectives on corporate sustainability. First, it addresses the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of corporate sustainability. It investigates the ‘what’ question through the issues to which corporate sustainability has been addressed; the ‘how’ question through the modes which have been deployed to deliver corporate sustainability; and the ‘why’ question through the rationales that have been offered for corporate sustainability. Second, it investigates the ‘who’ question by unpacking the historical roles and relationships of society, business, government and the natural environment actors. Third, it examines the ‘when’ question through three key phases of corporate sustainability. It presents corporate sustainability in the contexts of: industrialisation in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the rise of the modern corporation and ‘managerial capitalism’ in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; and rapid internationalisation in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries bringing wider impacts of corporate power and the greater awareness of the Anthropocene and human interdependency. This analysis of three historical phases is illustrated through the experiences of two long-standing companies: Boots, the UK pharmacist, and Tata, the Indian conglomerate.

In recent years, an important goal of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) has been to answer the question of how international collaboration and student mobility can be enhanced through digitalisation. The following chapter consists of a combination of desk research with insights from the work of the DAAD’s Digitalisation Section. It will provide both an overview of current trends and debates of the digitalisation of higher education as well as critical considerations for the future. The chapter will contribute to the debate on new dynamics of internationalisation of higher education through digitalisation before and during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. It will shed light on the flexibility of higher education systems in adapting to unexpected change. Furthermore, it will reflect on the likely impacts of the current crisis for the further development of higher education internationalisation with its opportunities, challenges and open questions.

At its core, political psychology is an inherently multidisciplinary field that aims to integrate insights from psychology, political science, sociology, and related disciplines to explain how people shape, and are shaped by, political phenomena across international borders. To these ends, the Cambridge Handbook of Political Psychology presents 41 chapters from world-renowned experts covering four distinct themes: (a) foundations of political psychology, (b) the politics of intergroup attitudes, (c) contemporary challenges to democracy, and (d) diversifying perspectives in political psychology. We thus showcase perspectives that are foundational to the field (e.g., rationale choice, ideology, individual differences, and public opinion), address enduring challenges to democracy (e.g., authoritarianism, racism, sexism, and immigration), and identify new threats that will shape the field for years to come (e.g., inequality, affective polarisation, political extremism, climate change, conspiracy theories, and populism). In doing so, we present the most comprehensive overview of political psychology to date that examines the origins of the field, where we are at today, and where we are headed for the future.

This chapter addresses the challenges arising from the often unclear legal status of intra-state peace agreements in establishing their binding force, applicable law and relevant principles of interpretation, and considers how drafting techniques affect the implementation of such agreements. First, it maps out the means available to participants in a peace process to confer binding status on (the substance of) an agreement under either domestic or international law, including UN Security Council endorsement, domestic entrenchment or constitutional reform. Second, the chapter examines how (predominantly international) courts and tribunals have grappled with the task of determining the law applicable to peace agreements, as well as examining trends in the principles of interpretation applied by adjudicatory bodies. Finally, it turns to the effects of drafting techniques on the implementation of agreements from the perspectives of the constitutive and instrumental approaches, including weighing the merits of constructive ambiguity.

Chapter 3 traces the accretion of imperial administration in Nauru from 1888 to 1920. The formal status of Nauru shifted twice, from protectorate to colony to British mandate. From 1888, Nauru was administered as part of the German Marshall Islands, and later subsumed under the direct colonial control of German New Guinea in 1906. The Jaluit Gesellschaft sold its phosphate rights to the British-owned Pacific Phosphate Company, which developed a mining operation under German administration. In 1914 Nauru was occupied by Australia on British request. The chapter retraces the advent of the League of Nations mandate system, arguing that C Mandate status marked an uneasy compromise between advocates of internationalised administration of the occupied territories and the annexationist Dominions of Australia and South Africa. As Nauru’s legal status shifted from protectorate to C Mandate, administrative control was assumed by Australia pursuant to an intra-imperial bargain between Britain, Australia and New Zealand, which established a tripartite phosphate monopoly. The chapter concludes that the basic division of public and private authority established in 1888 survived this shift.