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  • 6 - How Phrasal and Sentential Meaning are Learned
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 137-160
  • View extract

    Summary

    The roles that Universal Grammar (UG), a speaker’s first language (L1) and input play in the learning of second language (L2) phrasal and sentential meaning are considered. UG appears to guide L2 learners in identifying the meaning of constructions involving quantifier scope and anaphor interpretation. Input is necessary for L2 learners to acquire language-specific properties like the expression of ‘manner of motion along a path’ and the aspectual interpretation of verb forms. But L1 influence can be found in the early development of knowledge of input-derived meanings.
How Second Languages are Learned
  • How Second Languages are Learned
  • An Introduction
  • Roger Hawkins
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018
  • View description
    A comprehensive introduction to how people learn second languages (L2s), this textbook approaches the topic through five problems the L2 learner has to solve: 'breaking into' the L2; associating forms with meanings; learning sentence structure; learning phrasal and sentential meaning; and learning the use of the L2 in context. These problems are linked throughout to the L2 acquisition of lexis, morphology, syntax, semantics, phonetics/phonology and language-use in a reader-friendly way, using key studies to build a comprehensive picture of how L2s are learned. 'In a nutshell' summaries of chapter sections provide helpful signposts to the developing argument, whilst end-of-chapter activities encourage the reader to reflect on the ideas presented, analyse data and think creatively about the problems encountered. The roles of innate knowledge, input, and the age at which learning starts are also considered. This essential textbook will enable students to think objectively about language, and will be an asset to any introductory course on second language acquisition.
  • 3 - Exploring the L2 Learning of English Verb Forms
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 49-69
  • View extract

    Summary

    This chapter explores in more detail the acquisition of English verb forms by second language (L2) speakers. The structure of words is considered more carefully and the need to recognise the morpheme as the minimal meaningful unit is established. Words are built from lexical and functional morphemes. The strengths and weaknesses of four hypotheses about how learners acquire functional morphemes associated with verbs are discussed: the Aspect Hypothesis, the Missing Surface Inflection Hypothesis, the Morphological Deficit Hypothesis and the Feature Re-Assembly Hypothesis.
  • 7 - How Sound Systems are Learned
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 161-190
  • View extract

    Summary

    Learning a second language (L2) sound system (its phonology) is heavily influenced by the properties of the segments, syllables and prosody that have been established in a speaker’s first language (L1). Sub-phoneme contrasts that differ between the L1 and L2 are extremely difficult to acquire. New phonemes are acquirable, providing that the articulatory/acoustic features of which they are composed have already been selected in the L1. L1 syllable structure influences how syllables are produced in the L2, leading to the insertion of epenthetic vowels or the deletion of segments. Such cases are the basis for the Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis explanation for optionality in the use of verb forms by L2 speakers.
  • 11 - Pulling the Threads Together – a Theory of How Second Languages are Learned?
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 282-302
  • View extract

    Summary

    The findings of previous chapters are brought together to inform the kind of theory that is necessary to explain how second languages are learned. Such a theory involves the interaction of a conceptual/intentional system where propositions are formed, two types of innate knowledge (Universal Grammar (UG) and domain-general processes), three kinds of memory (working memory, short-term memory and long-term memory), and input. A number of existing hypotheses about the role of UG in second language (L2) learning and how L2 grammars develop over time are compared.
  • 1 - Second Language Learning: the Nature of the Task
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 1-23
  • View extract

    Summary

    Many people can achieve good levels of communicative ability in a second language (L2). To do so they face five challenges: breaking into the L2, matching forms to meanings, learning the syntax of the L2, learning the semantics of the L2 and learning how the L2 is used in connected discourse and in different contexts. The chapter provides an example for each challenge and how L2 learners deal with it. It also considers whether learning an L2 makes you smarter.
  • 4 - How Sentence Structure is Learned
  • Roger Hawkins, University of Essex
  • Book: How Second Languages are Learned
  • Published online: 12 December 2018
  • Print publication: 22 November 2018, pp 70-112
  • View extract

    Summary

    The syntax of early second language (L2) utterances is examined and how it develops over time. Topics covered are sentential negation, verb movement, question formation, relative clause interpretation and agreement between nouns and adjectives and nouns and determiners. The syntactic rules Merge, Move and Agree are introduced and there is discussion of the role of innate linguistic predispositions, first language influence and input in the development of L2 syntax.

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