1.1Bone gaming piece with a portrait of Nero. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, FRBNF45877682, Froehner no. 171.

1.2AE token with portrait of Augustus, 22 mm. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum. Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 1.

1.3AE token (spintria) with a sexual scene, 22 mm. The Hunterian, University of Glasgow. Reference Bateson, Martini and VismaraBateson, 1991: H, 3. Photograph by author.

1.4AE token of Gaius Mitreius, 19 mm. Münzkabinett Winterthur R 6047.

1.5AE token of Gaius Mitreius, 20 mm. Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum. Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 10.

1.6Palombino marble mould half, 108×76×29 mm. Reproduced courtesy of Harvard Art Museums, inv. no. 2008.118.

1.7Palombino marble mould half, 93×108×28 mm, 561 g. TURS 3578 (Pl. XII, 6). © ANTIKENSAMMLUNG, STAATLICHE MUSEEN ZU BERLIN – PREUSSISCHER KULTURBESTIZ, photographer Johannes Kramer, TC 8217, 183.

1.8Pb token with the legend M VALERI | M F | ETRVSC. TURS 1327. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18268125.

1.9Pb token decorated with Victory standing right / Wreath. TURS 1913. Harvard Art Museums 2008.116.32.

1.10Countermarked AE token. Reference CohenCohen vol. VIII, 271 no. 47. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, inv. no. 17062.

2.1Pb token showing Claudius and Messalina. From London Ancient Coins, Auction 60 (14 February 2017) lot 362.

2.2Pb token showing Nero and Mars (or a soldier). TURS 13. The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, RLT 42. Photograph by author.

2.3Pb token with the legend MARCI·MANI· around. TURS (Supplement) 3601 (previously unpublished). Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18256008.

2.4Pb token showing Nero and Claudia Augusta (?). TURS 34, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 32. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

2.5Pb token bearing an image of an oyster. From a private collection. Reference Dalzell and CrisàDalzell, 2021: 88 no. 2.

2.6Orichalcum token with the legend IO IO TRIVMP. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum. Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 19.

2.7Pb token, 17 mm, showing a palm tree on a platform with two wheels. TURS 34. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18256020.

2.8Pb token, 19 mm, showing a palm tree on a platform with two wheels. TURS 34, BMCRLT 942. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

2.9Pb token, 14 mm, with the legend IVDE. TURS 39, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 33b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

2.10Pb token, 19 mm, showing nude figure before palm tree. TURS 3194, BMCRLT 1224. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

2.11Pb token, 19 mm, showing Vespasian, Domitian and Titus. TURS 40. The Hunterian, University of Glasgow, RLT 24. Photograph by author.

2.12AR denarius showing Vespasian, Domitian and Titus. RIC II.1² 16. American Numismatic Society 1944.100.39897.

2.13Pb token, 23 mm, showing a two-horned rhinoceros. TURS 645, Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 49. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum.

2.14Pierced bone gaming piece (?) showing the Colosseum on one side and VI incised on the other. Froehner 282. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

2.15Pb token, 19 mm, naming Titus and Domitian. TURS 44, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 33e. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

2.16AE token, 18 mm, with the legend A·P·P·F. Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 21. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum.

2.17Pb token, 18 mm, with the legend HAD | AVG / PPF. TURS 66. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18256023.

2.18Pb token, 20 mm, showing Antinous. TURS 1552, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 525a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

2.19Pb token, 12 mm, with a triumphal arch. TURS 107, BMCRLT 2268. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

2.20Pb token from Egypt, 20.5 mm, showing Venus and a triumphal arch. Dattari-Savio Pl. 323, 11706 (this token). From Naville Numismatics Ltd., Auction 32, lot 340.

2.21Pb token, 27 mm, showing two male busts. TURS 71, Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18256024.

2.22AE sestertius, 40 mm, with a congiarium scene. RIC I² Nero 160, reproduced courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, 1954.203.156.

3.1Pb token, 14 mm, with the legend GPR FELICITER. TURS 1573, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 361b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.2Pb token, 19.5 mm, with Roma and the legend G P R F. TURS 1576, BMCRLT 371. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.3Pb token, 13.5×12 mm, showing the she-wolf suckling twins and the Ficus Ruminalis. TURS 1667, BMCRLT 1778. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.4Pb token, 20 mm, showing a river deity holding a long reed and cornucopia. TURS 1682, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 420a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.5Pb token, 19 mm, showing a river god reclining on an urn from which water flows. TURS 526, BMCRLT 768. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.6AE sestertius showing a view of the harbour at Ostia. RIC I² 178. American Numismatic Society 1967.153.118.

3.7Pb token, 13 mm, showing a Genius accompanied by the legend VICI. TURS 1613, BMCRLT 124. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.8Pb token, 15 mm, showing three Fortunae. TURS 501, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 335a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF. Photograph by author.

3.9Pb token, 14×12 mm, showing a lit lighthouse of three tiers. TURS 59, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 98. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.10Pb token, 24 mm, showing a lit lighthouse of four tiers. TURS 61, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Palestrina bag no. 97.36, no. 1445 in Rowan’s unpublished catalogue. Photograph by author.

3.11Pb token of Oxyrhynchus, 23 mm, decorated with a bust of Athena and Nike. See Milne 5291, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Palestrina, bag no. 97.39, no. 1446 (= Reference PensabenePensabene, 2001–3: no. 38). Photograph by author.

3.12Pb token, 24 mm, with the legend TRA and two people in a cymba. Private collection, ex Classical Numismatic Group 55 (13 September 2000), lot 1201 (part of) (www.cngcoins.com).

3.13Pb token, 20 mm, with the legend M ANTONIVS GLAVCVS. TURS 1127, Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 55. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum.

3.14Pb token, 22 mm, showing a female portrait. TURS 1546, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 439a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.15Pb token, 18 mm, displaying male busts and the legend VERRES and PROCVLVS. TURS 1332, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 427b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.16Pb token, 22 mm, with the legend P·TETTIVS | RVFVS. TURS 517, Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

3.17AR denarius of L. Livineius Regulus. RRC 494/27. American Numismatic Society 1937.158.312.

3.18Pb token, 19 mm, with the legend P GLITI GALLI. TURS 1238, Reference RowanRowan, 2020b: no. 57. Reproduced courtesy of the Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum.

3.19Pb token, 18 mm, showing an elephant emerging from a shell. TURS 1903, BMCRLT 810. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.20Pb token, 19 mm, with a gryllus design. TURS 2897, BMCRLT 343. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

3.21Pb token, 19 mm, with the legend CWC|IOY. TURS 1319, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 432. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.22Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with the figure of a saccarius. TURS 1033, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 418b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.23Orichalcum token, 20 mm, showing Augustus on one side and a saccarius on the other. Cohen vol. VIII, 254 no. 101, BnF 16979. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

3.24Marble relief showing saccarii offloading amphorae from a ship. DAI Rom Negative 33.1329.

3.25Pb token, 21 mm, decorated with a wheel with eight spokes. TURS 832. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Palestrina, bag no. 121.5, no. 669 in Rowan’s unpublished catalogue. Photograph by author.

3.26AR denarius, decorated with the triple cult statue of Diana Nemorensis. RRC 486/1, American Numismatic Society 1937.158.302.

3.27Pb token, 19 mm, decorated with three women standing frontally with arms raised. TURS 1345, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 430f1. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.1Pb token, Athens, 18 mm, Hellenistic period, showing the ‘cart of Dionysus’. Reference GkikakiGkikaki, 2020: cat. no. 21. Photo courtesy of the Archaeological Institute of Göttingen University. Photograph by Stephan Eckardt.

4.2AE token, 19 mm, with the legend VOTA PVBLICA. Reference RamskoldRamskold 2016: no. 33, pl. 1. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18236298.

4.3Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with Isis standing left on a ship. TURS 3184. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Palestrina bag no. 97.56, no. 1486 in Rowan’s unpublished catalogue. Photograph by author.

4.4Pb token, 19 mm, showing Anubis and Isis, or their priests. TURS 3190, BMCRLT 16. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

4.5Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with the mask of Anubis. TURS 3206, Pl. X, 13.

4.6Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with a cat (?) and left hand. TURS 3185, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 446b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.7Pb token, 17 mm, decorated with the head of Sarapis and a river deity. TURS (Supplement) 3731, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 646. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.8Pb token, 17 mm, showing Isis or a worshipper of Isis. TURS 3179, BMCRLT 1286. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

4.9Pb token, 17 mm, with the legend IO SAT IO. TURS 507, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 103. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.10Pb token, 12 mm, decorated with Victory and the legend SAT. TURS 508. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

4.11AR denarius, c. 19 mm, decorated with four wreaths. RRC 426/4a. Reproduced courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, 1937.158.206.

4.12Orichalcum token, 19 mm, showing a scene of triumph on a camel. Reference ButtreyButtrey, 1973: B25 XIX. The Hunterian Museum Tessera 19. Photograph by author.

4.13AE token, 25 mm, with four knucklebones. Cohen vol. VIII, 266 no. 5. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF (AF 17092), source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.14Orichalcum token, 21 mm, showing two boys or men playing a game. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF (AF 17088), source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.15Three-handled jug from the Rhône valley, and an enlarged image of the decorative medallion. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 17.194.1980, public domain.

4.16Pb token, 17 mm, showing two spectators applauding. TURS 537 variant (no fly). Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

4.17Pb token, 15 mm, showing a woman standing left holding a cloth over her head in an arch. TURS 2149. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

4.18Pb token, 16 mm, with the legend DIES VENAT. TURS 578, Bertolami Fine Arts E-Auction 73, lot 1947.

4.19Pb token, 16 mm, decorated with the image of a charioteer. TURS 749, BMCRLT 1086. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

4.20Pb token, 22 mm, showing Victory inscribing a shield. TURS (Supplement) 3603. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

4.21Pb token, 21.5 mm, decorated with an image of Victory crowning a boxer (?). TURS 550, BMCRLT 770. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

4.22Pb token, 15 mm, decorated with the image of an amphora with two palm branches. TURS 434, BMCRLT 1982. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

4.23Pb token, 23 mm, showing a loaf of bread seen from above. TURS 1021, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 609. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

4.24Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with the image of a modius. TURS 372, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 79. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.1Pb token, 17 mm, with the legend HS ∞. TURS 1460. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, 18262461.

5.2Pb token, 14 mm, decorated with the image of a lituus. TURS 1072. Reproduced courtesy of the Münzkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin.

5.3Copper quadrans, 18.5 mm, decorated with a garlanded altar. RIC I² Augustus 425. Reproduced courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, 1944.100.38382.

5.4Pb token, 18 mm, with the legend BALI|NEVM / GER|MANI. TURS 886, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 415b. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.5AE token, 13 mm, showing a male bather (?). Unpublished, BNF inv. FRBNF45877423. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.6AE token, 22 mm, showing two standing figures. Reference CohenCohen vol. VIII, 266 no. 9. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.7Pb token, 17 mm, showing a nude male bending at the knees with both arms outstretched before him. TURS 901, Pl. X, 21.

5.8Pb token, 19 mm, showing jug and strigil. TURS 899, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 105bis. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.9Pb token, 22 mm, showing a dolphin accompanied by the legend BAL. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Palestrina bag no. 124.5, no. 608 in Rowan’s unpublished catalogue. Photograph by author. See Reference OverbeckOverbeck, 2001: no. 50.

5.10Pb token, 14.7 mm, showing a ring with two strigils hanging down on either side of a container of oil (aryballos). TURS 563. Reproduced courtesy of Harvard Art Museums 2008.116.6.

5.11Pb token, 19 mm, showing an eagle, a peacock and an owl. TURS 869, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 247c. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF. Photograph by author.

5.12Pb token, 22 mm, with the legend ROM|VLA. TURS 1478. Reproduced courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, 1967.160.7.

5.13AE token, 12 mm, with the head of Mercury right. BM 1940, 0401.60. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

5.14AE token, 17×15 mm, showing a nude female figure beneath a domed canopy. BnF inv. F 7917. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.15Orichalcum token, 19 mm, with modius and cantharus. BnF inv. 17070. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.16Orichalcum token, 16 mm, with modius and cantharus. The Hunterian Museum Glasgow, Tessera no. 25. Photograph by author.

5.17AE token, 19 mm, with modius and cantharus and the legend Θ E. Ex BCD collection, Numismatik Naumann Auction 69 (2 September 2018), lot 342.

5.18Pb token, 14 mm, decorated with the image of a phallus. TURS 919. Reproduced courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, 2000.26.1.

5.19Pb token, 18 mm, decorated with an image of Fortuna. TURS 1502, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 430a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.

5.20Pb token, 15 mm, with the legend C PE|DANI. TURS 1299, Reference Rostovtzeff and ProuRostovtzeff and Prou, 1900: no. 426a. Reproduced courtesy of the BnF, source gallica.bnf.fr.