¹ In the 1920s, both Frederick Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1922), 14–5, and M.F. Lindley, The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory in International Law (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1926), 32–4, 143–46 credited the Hinterland Theory as the central framework for drawing African borders in the 1880s. Among the works dating the Hinterland Theory to the Berlin Conference and describing it as a landmark in the European partition of Africa are G.N. Uzoigwe, ‘Spheres of Influence and the Doctrine of the Hinterland in the Partition of Africa’, Journal of African Studies 3, no. 2 (1976): 194; S. Akweenda, International Law and the Protection of Namibia’s Territorial Integrity: Boundaries and Territorial Claims (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1997), 8; H.L. Wesseling, Divide and Rule: The Partition of Africa, 1880–1914, trans. Arnold Pomerans (Westport: Praeger, 1996), 118.

² Martti Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 148.

³ James Sheehan, ‘The Problem of Sovereignty in European History’, American Historical Review 111 (2006): 1–15; Territory ‘is global space that has been partitioned for the sake of political authority, space in effect empowered by borders.’ Charles Maier, Once within Borders: Territories of Power, Wealth, and Belonging since 1500 (Cambridge: Belknap, 2016), 1.

⁴ Akweenda, International Law, 21–2 cites several discussions between the UK and Germany in which either or both British and German diplomats invoked such an understanding of territoriality in Africa, as well as a use by the Ottoman Empire.

⁵ Berlin Conference Protocole No. 2, November 27, 1884; Annexe au Protocole No. 3. Rapport de la Commission instituée par la Conférence pour fixer la délimitation du bassin du Congo et de ses affluents.

⁶ British jurist Travers Twiss had recently developed the concept, defined by the existence of property rights but a lack of sovereignty. Andrew Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property and Empire, 1500–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 280.

⁷ United Nations A/RES/2832 (XXVI).

⁸ United Nations A/9029 (GAOR, 28th sess., Suppl. No. 29), 12.

⁹ The prefix had previously been used to denote similar connections between places. These relationships were all in terms of physical relationships to the ‘Vor-’, fore-regions. For instance, ‘Hinterindien’ was the term nineteenth-century Germans used for Southeast Asia, as it was beyond India. Michael Geistbeck, Grundzüge der Geographie für Mittelschulen sowie zum Selbstunterricht (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1885), 174. Robert von Mohl’s Encyklopädie der Staatswissenschaften defined hinterland as a physical relationship, the area behind a state’s coast (Tübingen: Laupp, 1859), 565.

¹⁰ Georges Balandier, ‘The Colonial Situation: A Theoretical Approach’, in Social Change: The Colonial Situation, ed. Immanuel Wallerstein (New York: Wiley, 1966), 44; Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 25.

¹¹ Maier, Once within Borders, 205–8.

¹² Kris Manjapra, The Age of Entanglement: German and Indian Intellectuals across Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014).

¹³ Notable syntheses include Michael Pearson, The Indian Ocean (London: Routledge, 2003); Ashin Das Gupta, India and the Indian Ocean World: Trade and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); K.N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Abdul Sheriff, Dhow Cultures of the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism, Commerce and Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010); Satish Chandra, ed., The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics (New Delhi: Sage, 1987); Denys Lombard and Jean Aubin, eds., Marchands et hommes d’affaires asiatiques dans l’Océan Indien et la Mer de Chine 13 ^e -20 ^e siècles (Paris: EHESS, 1988).

¹⁴ There are many Arabic-language histories of the Indian Ocean. Omani scholarship is particularly prominent, given longstanding connections to Zanzibar. The Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center has devoted itself to highlighting Omani connections to the Indian Ocean World as part of cultural diplomacy. http://www.indianoceanhistory.org. Sa‘id bin ‘Ali Al-Mughairi, Juhaynat al-Akhbār fī Tārīkh Zanjibār (Muscat: Oman Ministry of Heritage and Culture, 2001); Nasser bin ‘Abdullah Al-Riyami, Zanjibār: Shakhṣiyyāt wa Aḥdāth, 1868–1972 (Landan: Dār al-Ḥikmah, 2009). Masʻūd ʻAmshūsh, al-Ḥaḍārim fi al-arkhabīl al-Hindī : tarjamāt wa-dirāsāt (Aden: Dār Jāmiʻat ʻAdan lil-Ṭibāʻah wa-al-Nashr, 2006). Chinese historians have highlighted Chinese influence in the ocean a counterweight to European narratives of modernity and Chinese stagnation. Ying Liu, Zhongping Chen, and Gregory Blue, eds., Zheng He’s Maritime Voyages (1405–1433) and China’s Relations with the Indian Ocean World: A Multilingual Bibliography (Leiden: Brill, 2014).

¹⁵ Maier, Once within Borders, 12.

¹⁶ Steven Press, Rogue Empires: Contracts and Conmen in Europe’s Scramble for Africa (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017).

¹⁷ Lindley, Acquisition and Government; C.H. Alexandrowicz, ‘The Partition of Africa by Treaty (1974)’, in The Law of Nations in Global History, ed. David Armitage and Jennifer Pitts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 230–58.

¹⁸ Koskenniemi, Gentle Civilizer of Nations, 4.

¹⁹ Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property and Empire, 280. Numerous scholars have argued that European ideas of territorial sovereignty only really developed through the conquest of colonial empires and that sovereignties remained layered, overlapping, and contingent on local participation. Radhika Mongia, ‘Historicizing State Sovereignty: Inequality and the Form of Equivalence’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 49 (2007): 384–411; Douglas Howland and Luise White, ‘Introduction: Sovereignty and the Study of States’, in The State of Sovereignty: Territories, Laws, Populations, ed. Howland and White (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 1–18. Lauren Benton, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

²⁰ Peter Onuf, Statehood and Union: A history of the Northwest Ordinance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).

²¹ Marcos Cueto and Adrián Lerner, Indiferencias, tensiones y hechizos: Medio siglo de relaciones diplomáticas entre Perú y Brasil, 1889–1945 (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2012); Lewis Tambs, ‘Rubber, Rebels, and Rio Branco: The Contest for the Acre’, Hispanic American Historical Review 46, no. 3 (August 1966): 254–73. Todd Diacon, Stringing Together a Nation: Cândido Mariano da Silva Rondon and the Construction of a Modern Brazil, 1906–1930 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004).

²² Friedrich Fabri, Deutsche Kolonialbestrebungen. Angra Pequena und Südwestafrika (Eberfeld: Friderichs, 1884); excerpts from reports by Gustav Nachtigal of August 27 and September 8, 1884, November 14, 1884, BArch R 1001/4197; Herbert von Bismarck to Leo von Caprivi, November 26, 1884, BArch R 1001/4198. German Foreign Office memo, December 8, 1884, BArch R 1001/4198.

²³ Crowe, Berlin West African Conference, 177–82.

²⁴ Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770–1873 (London: James Currey, 1987).

²⁵ Berlin Conference Protocole No. 6, December 12, 1884.

²⁶ Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property and Empire.

²⁷ Barghash to Bismarck, May 12, 1885 (26 Rajab 1302), John Kirk to Earl Granville, July 6, 1885, in Correspondence Relating to Zanzibar, January 1886, in Irish University Press Series of British Parliamentary Papers. The Zanzibar Papers 1841–98. Colonies Africa 68 (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1971), 58.

²⁸ Mohammed ben Salem to Zanzibar Delimitation Commission, May 17, 1886, BArch R 1001/600. Barghash, together with the British general Stanley Mathews, attempted to block the German claims altogether. Mathews marched ahead of the commission, extracting pledges of loyalty from local rulers along its route.

²⁹ James de Vere Allen, ‘Swahili Culture and the Nature of East Coast Settlement’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 14, no. 2 (1981): 315–8; John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 47.

³⁰ Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices & Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770–1873 (London: James Currey, 1987), 1.

³¹ For example, the Comanche as discussed in Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), Khedival Egypt in Eve Troutt Powell, A Different Shade of Colonialism: Egypt, Great Britain, and the Mastery of the Sudan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); and the Ottoman Empire in Mostafa Minawi, The Ottoman Scramble for Africa: Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016).

³² Neville Chittick, Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast, 2 vols. (Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1974) and Felix Chami, The Tanzanian Coast in the First Millennium AD (Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, 1994).

³³ Adria LaViolette and Stephanie Wynne-Jones, ‘The Swahili World’, in The Swahili World, eds. Wynne-Jones and LaViolette (London: Routledge, 2018), 4; Jeremy Prestholdt, Domesticating the World: African Consumerism and the Genealogies of Globalization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Jonathon Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856–1888 (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1995); Fahad Bishara and Hollian Wint, ‘Into the Bazaar: Indian Ocean Vernaculars in the Age of Global Capitalism’, Journal of Global History 16, no. 1 (2021): 44–64.

³⁴ This line of argument parallels the contemporary development of the ‘Hamitic hypothesis’, a theory that ‘Hamitic’ peoples had traveled south from the Middle East and North Africa and were the source of all civilization in sub-Saharan Africa. See Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).

³⁵ John Kirk to Earl Granville, July 6, 1885, in Correspondence Relating to Zanzibar, January 1886, 67–9.

³⁶ Marquess of Salisbury to C.S. Scott, July 20, 1885, Correspondence Relating to Zanzibar, January 1886, 63–4.

³⁷ Georg Münster to Earl Granville, May 5, 1885, in Correspondence Relating to Zanzibar, January 1886, 38–9.

³⁸ Aide Mémoire to Paul von Hatzfeldt, June 2, 1886, BArch R 1001/600. Victor-Gabriel Lemaire would replace Raffray after Schmidt complained he was a ‘German hater’ and irreversibly biased. Schmidt to Gustav Krauel, February 15, 1886; Schmidt to Bismarck, February 13, 1886, BArch R 1001/598.

³⁹ Schmidt to Bismarck, January 17, 1886, BArch R 1001/596. The British instructions left Kitchener the leeway to look for other ‘indicia’ of Barghash’s power besides occupation and taxation. Kitchener was to ask people along the coast whether they paid tribute, taxes, or customs to Barghash, or practiced any other ‘acta of homage or fealty.’ Salisbury to Kitchener, October 17, 1885, in Zanzibar Papers, 97–8.

⁴⁰ Zanzibar Delimitation Commission, Procès-Verbal No. 6, Séance du 15 Février 1886, BArch R 1001/598.

⁴¹ John Wilkinson, ‘The Zanzibar Delimitation Commision 1885–1886’, Geopolitics and International Boundaries 1 (1996): 130–58.

⁴² Zanzibar Delimitation Commission, Procès-Verbal No. 6, Séance du 15 Février 1886, BArch R 1001/598.

⁴³ Informations recueillies par la Commission pendant son voyage sur la côte de Zanzibar du 19 Janvier an 6 Février 1886, BArch R 1001/598.

⁴⁴ Benton, Search for Sovereignty, 137.

⁴⁵ Hugo Grotius, Mare liberum, 1609–2009, ed. Robert Feenstra (Leiden: Brill, 2009); ‘This Modern Grotius’ An Introduction to the Life and Thought of C.H. Alexandrowicz’, in The Law of Nations in Global History, ed. David Armitage and Jennifer Pitts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 28.

⁴⁶ Notiz betr. Die den Delegirten von Großbrit. Zu ertheilende Instruktion für den Zusammentritt der mit der Abgrenzung des Sultanats von Zanzibar auf der ostafrik. Küste zu betrauenden Kommission von Deutschland, Großbrit. u. Frankreich, September 21, 1885, BArch R 1001/596.

⁴⁷ Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staten (Nördlingen: Beck, 1868), 167.

⁴⁸ Gutachten über den S5 des englischen Instruktionsentwurfs aufgestellten Grundsatz des Völkerrecht, daß die Besitzergreifung des Küstengebiets diej. des dahinter liegenden Flußgebiets in sich schließt, no date, BArch R 1001/596.

⁴⁹ Deutsch, ‘Inventing an East African Empire: The Zanzibar Delimitation Commission of 1885/1886,’ in Studien der Geschichte des deutschen Kolonialismus in Afrika: Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Peter Sebald, ed. Peter Heine and Ulrich van der Heyden (Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus, 1995), 210–9.

⁵⁰ Gerhard Rohlfs,‘Die Vorgänge in Ostafrika,’ Kölnische Zeitung, September 30, 1888. Anne Helfensteller and Helke Kammerer-Grothaus, eds., Afrika-Reise: Leben und Werk des Afrikaforschers Gerhard Rohlfs (Bonn: Politischer Arbeitskreis Schulen, 1998).

⁵¹ Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1994).

⁵² Peters, Die Gründung von Deutsch-Ostafrika (Berlin: Schwetschke & Sohn, 1906), 215.

⁵³ Suzanne Marchand, Down from Olympus: Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003); Martin Ruehl, The Italian Renaissance in the German Historical Imagination, 1860–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

⁵⁴ Georg Iggers, The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1968); Wolfgang Mommsen, ed., Leopold von Ranke und die moderne Geschichtswissenschaft (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1988); Benedikt Stuchtey and Peter Wende, eds., British and German Historiography 1750–1950: Traditions, Perceptions and Transfers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

⁵⁵ Johann Heinrich von Thünen, Der isolirte Staat in Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und Nationalökonomie (Hamburg: Perthes, 1826).

⁵⁶ Karl Andree, Geographie des Welthandels, vol. 2, Die außereuropäischen Erdtheile (Stuttgart: Julius Maier, 1872).

⁵⁷ Heinrich von Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, 5 vols., (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1879–1894).

⁵⁸ For example, Josef von Lehnert, et al., Die Seehäfen des Weltverkehrs, vol. 1 (Vienna: Alexander Dorn, 1891), in which economic hinterland appears repeatedly and is unglossed. Also in textbooks, Alwin Oppel and Arnold Ludwig, eds., Allgemeine Erdkunde in Bildern (Breslau: Ferdinand Hirt, 1898), 11–2.

⁵⁹ Brugsch had first become famous as a savant when he deciphered Demotic script as a Gymnasium student. He had written a history of Egypt popular enough to go through multiple editions in English translation. Heinrich Karl Brugsch, A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs: Derived Entirely from the Monuments, trans. Philip Smith, 2^nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1881).

⁶⁰ ‘Wandlungen’, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, February 18, 1888,

⁶¹ Hammacher was one of many educated Germans in this period who began writing popular historical works, which found a wider audience than the works written by scholars. Martin Nissen, Populäre Geschichtsschreibung: Historiker, Verleger und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit, 1848–1900 (Cologne: Böhlau, 2009).

⁶² ‘Die vierte ordentliche Generalversammlung des Deutschen Kolonialvereins zu Dresden am 6. Und 7. Mai 1887’, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, June 1, 1887, 345.

⁶³ ‘Kiloas Besitzergreifung durch die Portugiesen. (1500 bis 1502)’, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, January 28, 1888, 28;‘Der portugiesische Vizekönig Don Franzisko d’Almeida, sowie die Augsburger Kaufleute Balthasar Sprenger und Hans Mayer im Jahr 1505 in Kiloa’, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, February 18, 1888, 52; ‘Land und Leute in Kiloa im Jahre 1505. Nach der Schilderung des Balthasar Sprenger und Hans Mayr’, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, March 10, 1888, 74–6.

⁶⁴ Compare Rudolf Virchow’s review in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 20 (1888): 217–18 with a review by an O.K. in Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, January 14, 1888, 15–6.

⁶⁵ Grimm, Pharaonen in Ostafrika. This narrative of destructive Arab colonization was similar to one deployed by France in North Africa. Diana Davis, Resurrecting the Granary of Rome: Environmental History and French Colonial Expansion in North Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009); Yves Lacoste, Ibn Khaldun: The Birth of History and the Past of the Third World, trans. David Macey (New York: Verso, 1984); Abdelmajid Hannoum, ‘Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldûn Orientalist, History and Theory 42 (February 2003): 61–81.

⁶⁶ Strandes’ description has been most forcefully challenged by Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asia: A Political and Economic History, 2^nd ed. (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012).

⁶⁷ Justus Strandes, Die Portugiesenzeit von Deutsch- und Englisch-Ostafrika (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1899), 97.

⁶⁸ Strandes, Portugiesenzeit von Deutsch- und Englisch-Ostafrika, 81.

⁶⁹ DOAG statement, November 1886, BArch R 8023/265.

⁷⁰ Treaty between Carl Peters and Muhamed bin Salim, July 30, 1887, BArch R 8124/2.

⁷¹ Article XI of Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty, Sammlung der offiziellen Aktenstücke zur Geschichte der Gegenwart (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1891), 151.

⁷² Lindley, Acquisition and Government, 32–4, 143–6. Lugard, Dual Mandate, 14–5.

⁷³ George Chisholm, Handbook of Commercial Geography, 4^th revised ed., (London: Longmans, 1903), 54.

⁷⁴ Friedrich Kluge, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1967).

⁷⁵ Mostafa Minawi, The Ottoman Scramble for Africa: Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), 49.

⁷⁶ As quoted in K.M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance: A Survey of the Vasco Da Gama Epoch of Asian History, 1498–1945, new ed. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1959), 146.

⁷⁷ As quoted in Bruce Elleman, Wilson and China: A Revised History of the Shandong Question (London: Routledge, 2015), 21.

⁷⁸ Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Open Road, 2015).

⁷⁹ Igor Kopytoff, ‘The Internal African Frontier, in The Frontier in African History: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies, ed. Kopytoff (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 14.

⁸⁰ Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001); David Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested Enterprise (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 212–3.

⁸¹ Maier, Once within Borders, 233–5.

⁸² Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property, and Empire, 310.

⁸³ Ivan Head, ‘Canadian Claims to Territorial Sovereignty in the Arctic Regions’, McGill Law Journal 9, no. 3 (1963): 204.

⁸⁴ J.R. Miller, Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009); René Fumoleau, This Land Shall Last: A History of Treaty 8 and Treaty 11, 1870–1939 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2004).

⁸⁵ Leonid Timtchenko, ‘The Russian Arctic Sectoral Concept: Past and Present’, Arctic 50, no. 1 (March 1997): 29–30.

⁸⁶ W. Lakhtine, ‘Rights over the Arctic’, The American Journal of International Law 24, no. 4 (October 1930): 703–17.

⁸⁷ David Hunter Miller, ‘Political Rights in the Arctic’, Foreign Affairs 4, no. 1 (October 1925): 47–60.

⁸⁸ Walter Christaller, Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1933). Christaller applied his theory to eastern Europe during the Second World War in multiple publications: ‚Grundgedanken zum Siedlungs- und Verwaltungsaufbau im Osten’, Neues Bauerntum 32 (1940): 305–12; Die zentralen Orte in den Ostgebieten und ihre Kultur- und Marktbereiche, part 1: Von Struktur und Gestaltung der zentralen Orte des Deutschen Ostens (Leipzig: Koehler, 1941), among others.

⁸⁹ Mechtild Rössler, ‘Applied Geography and Area Research in Nazi Society: Central Place Theory and Planning’, in Hitler’s Geographies: The Spatialities of the Third Reich, ed. Paolo Giaccaria and Claudio Minca (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 192; Götz Aly and Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction, trans. A.G. Blunden (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 96–7.

⁹⁰ Trevor Barnes and Minca, ‘Nazi Spatial Theory: The Dark Geographies of Carl Schmitt and Walter Christaller’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 103, no. 3 (2013): 669–87.

⁹¹ John Parr, ‘Central Place Theory: An Evaluation’, Review of Urban & Regional Development Studies 29, no. 3 (November 2017): 151.

⁹² Maier, Once within Borders, 249.

⁹³ Panikkar was not the first Indian author to pursue Indian maritime history. R.K. Mookerji, Indian Shipping: A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the Earliest Times (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1912) adopted a maritime framework but focused on Southeast Asia and did not discuss an Indian Ocean World. Panikkar also wrote other books on the Indian Ocean, The Strategic Problems of the Indian Ocean (Allahabad: Kitabistan, 1944); Asia and Western Dominance: A Survey of the Vasco Da Gama Epoch of Asian History 1498–1945 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1953).

⁹⁴ K.M. Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean: An Essay on the Influence of Sea Power on Indian History (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1945), 84.

⁹⁵ Panikkar, India and the Indian Ocean, 22, 35–6.

⁹⁶ He took these ideas even farther in his 1953 Asia and Western Dominance.

⁹⁷ K.B. Vaidhya, The Naval Defence of India (Bombay: Thacker & Co., 1949), 3.

⁹⁸ Vaidhya, Naval Defence of India, 2.

⁹⁹ Manjapra, Age of Entanglement, 179, 290.

¹⁰⁰ Manjapra, Age of Entanglement, 192.

¹⁰¹ Such ideas of thinking about political territories beyond the nation-state were not limited to India. See Frederick Cooper, ‘Possibility and Constraint: African Independence in Historical Perspective’, Journal of African History 49 (2008): 167–96.

¹⁰² Vaidhya, Naval Defence of India, 6, 30.

¹⁰³ Panikkar, Indian and the Indian Ocean, 20.

¹⁰⁴ Panikkar, Indian and the Indian Ocean, 76.

¹⁰⁵ Jawaharlal Nehru, ‘India and the Membership of the Security Council’, in Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Second Series, vol. 1, ed. Sarvepalli Gopal (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 1984), 464.

¹⁰⁶ Nehru, Glimpses of World History (New York: The John Day Company, 1942), 257, 261.

¹⁰⁷ Scott, ‘India’s “Grand Strategy” for the Indian Ocean.’

¹⁰⁸ James Brennan, ‘Lowering the Sultan’s Flag: Sovereignty and Decolonization in Coastal Kenya’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 50 (2008): 831–61.

¹⁰⁹ Jacques Auber, Histoire de l’océan indien (Tananarive: Societe lilloise d’imprimerie de Tananarive, 1955); Auguste Toussaint, Histoire de l’océan indien (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1960).

¹¹⁰ Christopher Lee, Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Movement and Its Political Afterlives (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010).

¹¹¹ United Nations A/9029 (GAOR, 28th sess., Suppl. No. 29), 12. Although China did have an early modern trading relationship with the Indian Ocean, the Ocean was certainly not the ‘main access to the sea’ for 1970s China. Manjari Chatterjee Miller, Wronged by Empire: Post-Imperial Ideology and Foreign Policy in India and China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013); Odd Arne Westad, Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750 (New York: Basic, 2012).

¹¹² Gregg Brazinsky, Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry during the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Jeremy Friedman, Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).

¹¹³ Jamie Monson, Africa’s Freedom Railway: How a Chinese Development Project Changed Lives and Livelihoods in Tanzania (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011).

¹¹⁴ United Nations A/RES/2832 (XXVI).

¹¹⁵ Timtchenko,‘Russian Arctic Sectoral Concept’, 33–4.

¹¹⁶ This can be seen in maps submitted to the Commission, ‘Arctic Maps’, IBRU: Centre for Borders Research https://www.durham.ac.uk/research/institutes-and-centres/ibru-borders-research/maps-and-publications/maps/arctic-maps-series/.