3. ‘The attack on the World Trade Center’ <http://www.ejil.org/forumWTC/index.html>; J.J. Paust, ‘There is no need to revise the laws of war in light of September 11th’, ASIL Task Force on Terrorism <http://www.asil.org/taskforce/paust.pdf>; R.K. Goldman and B.D. Tittemore, ‘Unprivileged combatants and the hostilities in Afghanistan: their status and rights under international humanitarian law and human rights law’, ASIL Task Force on Terrorism <http://www.asil.org/taskforce/goldman.pdf>; Damrosch, L.F. and Oxman, B.H., eds., ‘Agora: future implications of the Iraq conflict’, 97 AJIL (2003) pp. 553–642, 803–872Google Scholar; ‘Legal responses to terrorism: security, prosecution, and rights’, ‘Self-defense in an age of terrorism’, and ‘Constraints on the waging of war: jus in bello and the challenge of modern conflicts’, 97 Proc. ASIL (2003) pp. 13–27, 141–152 and 193–203Google Scholar, respectively; ‘Current pressures on international humanitarian law’, 28 Yale JIL (2003) pp. 317–354Google Scholar.

4. Those misconceptions are reflected, inter alia, in such manifestations as the ‘war’ against terrorism; in an unqualified denial of POW status, the denial of standard protection rights for detainees, and repudiation of due process; in the resort to interrogation methods inflicting pain and psychological manipulation; and in the refusal of international monitoring and control. See Paust, J.J., ‘Post-9/11 overreactions and fallacies regarding war and defense, Guantanamo, the status of persons, treatment, judicial review of detention, and due process in military commissions’, 49 Notre Dame Law Review (2004) pp. 1335–1364Google Scholar.

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6. Aldrich, G.H., ‘Progressive development of the laws of war: a reply to criticisms of the 1977 Geneva Protocol I’, 26 Virginia JIL (1986) pp. 693–720Google Scholar, and ‘Prospects for the United States ratification of Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions’, 85 AJIL (1991) pp. 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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8. Gasser, H.-P., ‘International humanitarian law, the prohibition of terrorist acts and the fight against terrorism’, 4 YIHL (2004) pp. 329–347CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gasser, H.-P., ‘Acts of terror, “terrorism” and international humanitarian law’, 84 IRRC (2002) pp. 547–570Google Scholar; Vöneky, S., ‘The fight against terrorism and the rule of the law of warfare’, in Walter, C. et al. , eds., Terrorism as a Challenge for National and International Law: Security versus Liberty? (Berlin, Springer 2004) pp. 925 at 944CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Vöneky correctly stated that (1) the law of armed conflict is prima facie applicable to counter-terrorist measures if there is a military reaction in another state with a certain level of intensity and the host-state objects to the military operations, and (2) the application of the law of armed conflict does not privilege terrorists.

9. See report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change titled ‘A more secure world: our shared responsibility’ (United Nations 2004) <http://www.un.org/secureworld>.

10. Report of the Secretary-General on the work of the organisation, GAOR (United Nations), 59th Sess., 3rd plen. mtg., p. 2, UN Doc. A;59/PV.3 (2004).

11. Dolzer, R., ‘Clouds on the horizon of humanitarian law’, 28 Yale JIL (2003) pp. 337–340Google Scholar.

12. Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. US) Merits, ICJ Rep. (1986) pp. 14 at 103, para. 195 <http://www.icj-cij.org/>.

13. Ibid., paras. 254 et seq.

14. Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94–1-A, Judgement, Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, paras. 99–145.

15. With this decision the ICTY Appeals Chamber in a way has shadowed its more innovative earlier position, that many rules of international humanitarian law originally applicable in international armed conflict have become customary rules applicable also in internal conflict, and are binding law for all parties to the conflict: ‘What is inhumane, and consequently proscribed, in international wars, cannot but be inhumane and inadmissible in civil strife’. See Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94–1, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, 2 October 1995, para. 119.

16. This view was shared by the International Law Commission, Report on the work of its fifty-third session, Ch. IV, ‘Responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts’, GAOR (United Nations), 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001) pp.106–107 <http://www.un.org/law/i1c/reports/2001/2001report.htm>. Meanwhile, also war crimes committed in non-international armed conflicts are penalised under Art. 8(2)(c) and (e) of the Statute of the International Criminal Court of 17 July 1998 which is, however, not applicable to the ICTY.

17. SC Res. 1368, 12 September 2001. Concerns brought forward against this request were based on the participation of the United States in the voting of the Security Council and the alleged absence of fair trial for Osama Bin Laden in the United States. See de Wet, E., The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council (Oxford, Hart Publishing 2004) pp. 350 et seq.Google Scholar While such concerns may be valid as far as procedures followed during the adoption of relevant Security Council resolutions are concerned, it is beyond any dispute that the Security Council had convincingly and in binding form qualified the situation as a threat to international peace and security.

18. SC Res. 1214, 8 December 1998, preambular para. 3 and operative para. 13.

19. SC Res. 1267, 15 October 1999, preambular para. 5 and operative para. 2.

20. SC Res. 1333, 19 December 2000.

21. See Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, UN Doc. A/RES/56/83, 28 January 2002; Ku, C. and Jacobson, H.K., eds., Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Holzgrefe, J.L. and Keohane, R.O., eds., Humanitarian Intervention — Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hasenclever, A., Die Macht der Moral in der internationalen Politik. Militärische Interventionen westlicher Staaten in Somalia, Ruanda and Bosnien-Herzegowina (Frankfurt, Campus Verlag 2001)Google Scholar.

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24. ‘Prevent our enemies from threatening us, our allies, and our friends with weapons of mass destruction’, in The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Part V (Washington, The White House 2002)Google Scholar <http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss5.html>; Stahn, C., ‘Nicaragua is dead, long live Nicaragua: the right to self-defence under Article 51 UN Charter and international terrorism’, with comments by W.M. Reisman and Y. Dinstein, in Walter, et al. , supra n. 8, pp. 827–877, 909–913 and 915–924Google Scholar.

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26. See Art. 24 of the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, prepared by Francis Lieber, promulgated as General Orders Nr. 100 by President Lincoln, 24 April 1863, in Schindler, D. and Toman, J., The Laws of Armed Conflict. A Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and Other Documents, 4th edn. (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2004) pp. 3–20Google Scholar. Art. 24 reads as follows: ‘The almost universal rule in remote times was, and continues to be with barbarous armies, that the private individual of the hostile country is destined to suffer every privation of liberty and protection, and every disruption of family ties. Protection was, and still is with uncivilized people, the exception.’

27. The ‘dum-dum’ was a British military bullet developed for use in India — at the Dum-Dum Arsenal — on the North West Frontier in the late 1890s. It comprised a jacketed .303 bullet with the jacket nose open to expose its lead core. The aim was to improve the bullet's effectiveness by increasing its expansion upon impact. The term ‘dum-dum’ was later taken for any soft-nosed or hollow pointed bullet.

28. See Doswald-Beck, L., ‘Implementation of international humanitarian law in future wars’, in Schmitt, M.N. and Green, L.C., eds., The Law of Armed Conflicts: Into the Next Millenium (Newport, RI, United States Naval War College 1998) pp. 39 at 41, n. 7Google Scholar.

29. For a discussion of exemptions to this prohibition, see infra 3.1.

30. Art. 8(2)(b)(xix) of the Statute of the International Criminal Court.

31. Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism of 22 April 1998 <http://www.leagueofarabstates.org/E_News_Antiterrorism.asp>; Convention of the Organization of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism of 1 July 1999 <http://www.oic-un.org/26icfm/c.html>. For an assessment of both conventions, see Hoss, C. and Philipp, C.E., ‘The Islamic world and the fight against terrorism’, in Walter, et al. , supra n. 8, pp. 363–379Google Scholar. The texts of the conventions are also reproduced at pp. 1155–1174 and 1175–1194.

32. Encouraging first steps of a human rights dialogue have been made. See Hannikainen, L. and Sajjadpour, S.K., Dialogue Among Civilizations. The Case of Finnish-Iranian Human Rights Expert Dialogue (Rovaniemi, University of Lapland 2002)Google Scholar. These efforts deserve to be continued and they ought to be broadened.

33. Bassiouni, M. Cherif, ‘Legal control of international terrorism: a policy-oriented assessment’, 43 Harvard ILJ (2002) pp. 83 at 86Google Scholar.

34. Art. 2 ICCPR, General Comment No. 31 [80] titled ‘The nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States Parties to the Covenant’, UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev. 1/Add. 13, General Comment No. 31, 26 May 2004, paras. 10 and 11 <http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf>; Art. 1 ECHR, Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgement (merits) of 18 December 1996, 23 EHRR (1977) p. 513Google Scholar and Judgement (preliminary objections) of 23 February 1995, Series A No. 310, p. 45 <http://www.echr.coe.int>. See Coomanns, F. and Kamminga, M.T., eds., Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Treaties (Antwerp, Intersentia, 2004)Google Scholar.

35. Banković and Others v. Belgium and 16 Other Contracting States, Decision of 12 December 2001, 41 ILM (2002) p. 517Google Scholar <http://www.echr.coe.int>; see Tomuschat, C., Human Rights Between Idealism and Realism (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2003) pp. 106–111Google Scholar.

36. Fleck, D., ‘Humanitarian protection against non-state actors’, in Frowein, J.A. et al. , eds., Verhandeln für den Frieden — Negotiating for Peace: Liber Amicorum Tono Eitel (Berlin, Springer 2003) pp. 69–94Google Scholar.

37. Tomuschat, C., ‘The applicability of human rights law to insurgent movements’, in Fischer, H. et al. , eds., Krisensicherung und Humanitärer Schutz — Crisis Managment and Humanitarian Protection: Festschrift für Dieter Fleck (Berlin, Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag 2004) pp. 573–591Google Scholar, with specific references to the practice of the Security Council and the General Assembly related to the conflicts in former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, the Congo, Angola, Liberia, and Somalia.

38. Seibert-Fohr, A., ‘Die Deliktshaftung von Untemehmen für die Beteiligung an im Ausland begangenen Völkerrechtsverletzungen: Anmerkungen zum Urteil Doe I v. Unocal Corp. des US Court of Appeal (9th Circuit)’, 63 ZaöRV (2003) pp. 195–204Google Scholar.

39. GA Res. 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 UNTS p. 171; see also Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res. 217 A (III), UN Doc. A/810 (1948).

40. See General Comments Nos. 18 and 20 <http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf>.

41. Kremnitzer, M., ‘Präventives Töten’, in Fleck, D., ed., Rechtsfragen der Terrorismusbekämpfung durch Streitkräfte (Baden-Baden, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft 2004) pp. 201–222Google Scholar.

42. While many states considered the use of riot control agents for military purposes as unacceptable, the United Kingdom had stated in 1970 that CS and other such gases were outside the scope of the Geneva Gas Protocol: ‘The USA, on ratification of the Protocol in 1975, declared their understanding that it did not apply to riot control agents and chemical herbicides but that, as a matter of policy, the use of riot control agents and chemical herbicides would be restricted’. See UK Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2004) para. 1.27.2Google Scholar; Roberts, A. and Guelff, R., eds., Documents on the Laws of War, 3rd edn. (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2000) pp. 165–167Google Scholar.

43. Supra nn. 27, 28 and accompanying text.

44. See Baxter, R., ‘So-called ‘unprivileged belligerency: spies, guerrillas and saboteurs’, 28 BYIL (1951) pp. 325–345Google Scholar; Dörmann, K., ‘The legal status of “unlawful/unprivileged combatants”’, 85 IRRC (2003) pp. 45–74Google Scholar; Callen, J., ‘Unlawful combatants and the Geneva Conventions’, 44 Virginia JIL (2004) pp. 1025 et seq.Google Scholar; K.W. Watkin, ‘Combatants, unprivileged belligerents and conflicts in the 21st century’, Harvard International Humanitarian Law Research Initiative Working Paper (2003) <http://www.ihlresearch.org>.

45. Report for the 28th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent titled ‘International humanitarian law and the challenges of contemporary armed conflicts’(Geneva,ICRC2003) p. 18Google Scholar.

46. GA Res. 2200A, supra n. 39.

47. Text as modified by Protocol 11 of 11 May 1994, in Jacobs, F.G. and White, R.C.A., The European Convention on Human Rights (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1996) pp. 422–438Google Scholar.

48. OAS Treaty Series No. 36, 1144 UNTS p. 123 <http://www.cidh.org>. See also American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, OAS Doc. OEA/Ser.L/V/II.23, doc. 21, rev. 6.

49. Adopted 27 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, reprinted in 21 ILM (1982) p. 58Google Scholar <http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/zlafchar.htm>.

50. Adopted 15 September 1994, reprinted in 18 HRLJ (1997) p. 151Google Scholar <http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/arabcharter.html>. See also Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights, dated 21 Dhul Qaidah 1401/19 September 1981 <http://www.alhewar.com/ISLAMDECL.html>.

51. Frowein, J.A., ‘The relationship between human rights regimes and regimes of belligerent occupation’, 28 Israel YB HR (1999) p. 1Google Scholar; Watkin, supra n. 22.

52. Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners 1955, UN Doc A/CONF/6/1, Annex I, A (1956), approved by ECOSOC Res. 663 C (XXIV), 31 July 1957, and amended by ECOSOC Res. 2076 (LXII), 13 May 1977 <http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/glsmr.htm>.

53. Pictet, J., ed., Commentary to the Geneva Conventions, Vol. I (Geneva, ICRC 1952) p. 50Google Scholar.

54. Ibid.

55. CCPR-Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 29, States of Emergency (Art. 4), UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev. 1/Add. 11 (2001) <http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf>. Similar standards apply under the European Convention on Human Rights. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights has no derogation or suspension clause whatsoever.

56. British Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 <http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2001/20010024.htm>. It remains questionable whether the material conditions for derogation under Art. 15 ECHR and Art. 4 ICCPR are met in this case. See Black-Branch, J., ‘Powers of detention of suspected international terrorists under the United Kingdom Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001: dismantling the cornerstones of a civil society’, 27 European Law Review Human Rights Survey (2002) p. 19Google Scholar; Henning, V.H., ‘Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001: has the United Kingdom made a valid derogation from the European Convention on Human Rights?’, 17 Amer. Univ. ILR (2002) pp. 1263 at 1277 et seq.Google Scholar

57. See Abbasi & Anor v. Secretary of State for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office [2002] EWCA Civ 1598, para. 29.

58. See Habeas Corpus in Emergency Situations, I/A Court HR Advisory Opinions: OC-8/87 of 30 January 1987, Series A No. 8, para. 42; and OC-9/87 of 6 October 1987, Series A No. 9, para. 1. The arguments of the Court, developed in implementation of Arts. 27 and 7 American Convention on Human Rights, are fully applicable to Art. 4 ICCPR.

59. This was the request addressed on 11 April 2003 to the European Commission for Democracy Through Law (hereafter, Venice Commission) on behalf of the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.

60. Opinion on the Possible Need for Further Development of the Geneva Conventions, adopted by the Venice Commission at its 57th Plenary Sess. (2003), Opinion No. 245/2003, Council of Europe Doc. CDL-AD (2003) 18, 17 December 2003 <http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2003/CDL-AD(2003)018-e.pdf>.

61. Art. 2 Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land 1899, in Schindler and Toman, supra n. 26, pp. 55–87.

62. Art. 2 Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land 1907, in ibid., pp. 55–87.

63. Art. 25(2) Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field 1929, in ibid., pp. 409–420; Art. 82(2) Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War 1929, in ibid., pp. 421–444.

64. Art. 2(3) common to the four Geneva Conventions 1949.

65. ‘Conduct of the Persian Gulf War: final report to Congress’ (1992) pp. 696 at 700–703 <http://www.ndu.edu/library/epubs/cpgw.pdf>. See Green, L.C., The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict (Manchester, Manchester University Press 1993) p. xvGoogle Scholar.

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68. See Federal Ministry of Defence Manual, Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts (Bonn, 1992) para. 1204Google Scholar.

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71. See Arts. 49(1) and 51(2) AP I.

72. See Art. 34 GC IV.

73. See Art. 23(b) of the Hague Regulations.

74. ‘… diplomatic law itself provides the necessary means of defence against, and sanction for, illicit activities by members of diplomatic or consular missions’. United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, ICJ Rep. (1980) pp. 3 at 38, para. 83 and p. 40, para. 86Google Scholar.

75. International Law Commission, supra n. 16, draft Art. 50(2)(b) and Commentary, p. 40.

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81. Cf. UN Commission on Human Rights, final report of the Special Rapporteur MrBassiouni, M. Cherif titled ‘The right to restitution, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms’, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2000/62, 18 01 2000, pp. 5 et seq.Google Scholar

82. The International Law Association has established a new Committee on Compensation for Victims of War. Its Mandate is as follows:

‘Innocent civilians are often casualties during armed conflicts, whether or not intentionally targeted. Deprived of effective protection, they are often left without any remedy if they are killed or wounded, or suffer property or other losses. It is time to systematically review the law of war and human rights with a view to focussing on the rights of victims of war to compensation — both to serve the end of justice and to inhibit wanton attack on civilian population by the military, whether or not under superior order. The proposed project would have as its goal the preparation and adoption of a Draft Declaration of International Law Principles on Compensation to Victims of War, as a logical sequel to three ILA declarations already adopted: namely, on Mass Expulsion (Seoul 1986), Compensation to Refugees (Cairo 1992), and Internally Displaced Persons (London 2000). Underlying all these declarations is the principle that compensation must, under international law, be paid to victims of human rights abuses.’

Background report by R. Hofmann and F. Riemann <http://www.ILA-hq.org>.

83. See Hague Appeal for Peace, Draft Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions Establishing an Individual Complaints Procedure for Violations of International Humanitarian Law <http://www.haguepeace.org>; Kleffner, J.K. and Zegveld, L., ‘Establishing an individual complaints procedure for violations of international humanitarian Law’, 3 YIHL (2000) pp. 384–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kleffner, J.K., ‘Improving compliance with international humanitarian law through the establishment of an individual complaints procedure’, 15 Leiden JIL (2002) pp. 237–250CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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