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Of Harm, Culprits and Rectification: Obtaining Corrective Justice for Climate Change Displacement

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 August 2020

Fanny Thornton Open the ORCID record for Fanny Thornton [Opens in a new window]
Fanny Thornton*
Affiliation:
Canberra Law School, University of Canberra (Australia). Email: Fanny.Thornton@canberra.edu.au.
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Abstract

In light of the accelerating nature of climate change and its effect, it is unsurprising that various entities increasingly resort to courts and tribunals to seek to address the many harms and wrongs that clearly stem from climate change. This article discusses the opportunities in this context for those who face displacement by the effects of climate change, an issue that is not necessarily at the heart of either climate justice debates or climate displacement debates. Discussions about how to respond to displacement arising in the context of climate change often focus on the ‘protection space’ or ‘assistance space’, in which those affected are conceptualized as actual or potential seekers of protection or assistance, who may or may not be owed refuge elsewhere on account of unmet needs for shelter, support or safety. This article takes a different approach and conceptualizes those affected as potential or actual seekers of justice, who may be owed rectification for inflicted harm. The article thus contributes to emerging scholarship concerning climate change litigation and climate harm reversal, by focusing on the corrective justice potential for those who face the specific issue of displacement stemming from climate change. To this end, the article provides the relevant practical and analytical background, and discusses key recent law and policy developments in both the domestic and cross-border spheres. The article considers not merely the nexus between displacement stemming from climate change and considerations of justice, but also how and where justice in this context is or may be sought.

Keywords

Climate changeClimate justiceCorrective justiceClimate change litigationDisplacementTrapped populations
Type
Article
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 10 , Issue 1 , March 2021 , pp. 13 - 33
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

I wish to thank the two anonymous reviewers of this article for valuable feedback.

References

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23 Adger et al., n. 20 above, p. 767.

24 Ibid., pp. 768ff.

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56 R.A. James et al., ‘Attribution: How Is It Relevant to Loss and Damage Policy and Practice’, in Mechler et al., n. 52 above, pp. 113–54.

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60 See, e.g., R. Bronen, ‘Climate-Induced Displacement of Alaska Native Communities’, Brookings-LSE Project on Internal Displacement, 30 Jan. 2013; also K. Mandel, ‘In Alaska, a Town Threatened by Climate Change Gets Federal Funding to Relocate’, ThinkProgress, 23 Mar. 2018, available at: https://thinkprogress.org/newtok-alaska-gets-relocation-funding-35b4434242a6.

61 See, e.g., United States Army Corps of Engineers – Alaska District, ‘Alaska Village Erosion Technical Assistance Program’, Apr. 2006, available at: http://www.housemajority.org/coms/cli/AVETA_Report.pdf.

62 A. York, ‘Alaskan Village Stands on Leading Edge of Climate Change’, 29 Dec. 2009, available at: https://poweringanation.unc.edu/alaskan-village-stands-on-leading-edge-of-climate-change/#:~:text=Alaskan%20village%20stands%20on%20leading%20edge%20of%20climate%20change,-Reporters%20Anna%20York&text=As%20Newtok's%20tribal%20administrator%2C%20he,of%20frozen%20soil%20called%20permafrost.

63 E.g., C. Welch, ‘Climate Change Has Finally Caught up to This Alaska Village’, National Geographic, 22 Oct. 2019, available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/climate-change-finally-caught-up-to-this-alaska-village.

64 Ibid.

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67 Pevec, n. 65 above, p. 228.

68 See Agreement between the Government of the United States and the Government of the Marshall Islands for the Implementation of Section 177 of the Compact of Free Association, 25 June 1983, in force 21 Oct. 1986; further details in US Department of State, ‘Report Evaluating the Request of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Presented to the Congress of the United States of America’, Nov. 2004, available at: https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rpt/40422.htm.

69 Pevec, n. 65 above, pp. 231ff.

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74 Though there have been some determinations concerning the consequences of adaptation measures: see, e.g., Burger & Gundlach, n. 72 above.

75 Note also the pursuit of legal avenues that do not revolve around corrective justice: e.g., J. McAdam, ‘No “Climate Refugees” in New Zealand’, Brookings Institution, 13 Aug. 2014, available at: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/planet policy/2014/08/13/no-climate-refugees-in-new-zealand.

76 E.g., Morel, M., Stavropoulou, M. & Durieux, J.-F., ‘The History and Status of the Right Not To Be Displaced’ (2012) 41 Forced Migration Review, pp. 5–7Google Scholar; Morel, M., The Right Not To Be Displaced in International Law (Intersentia, 2014)Google Scholar.

77 Lliuya v. RWE A.G., Az. 2 O 285/15 Essen Regional Court (2015); unofficial English translations of relevant court documents at Germanwatch, ‘Court Documents of the Case of Huarez’, 13 Dec. 2017, available at: https://germanwatch.org/en/14841.

78 W. Frank, C. Bals & J. Grimm, ‘The Case of Huarez: First Climate Lawsuit on Loss and Damage Against an Energy Company Before German Courts’, in Mechler et al., n. 52 above, pp. 475–82.

79 Germanwatch, General Ruling of the Civil High Court in Hamm: Corporate Responsibility for Climate Change Impacts Exists in German Law – Depending on Evidence in Any Specific Case to Show Responsibility, 2017, p. 2, available at: https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/announcement/20810.pdf.

80 Domestic: e.g., Kivalina v. ExxonMobil, 696 F.3d 849 (9th Cir. 2012,) which stumbled over the ‘political question doctrine’ (by which courts hold that certain issues pose political and not legal questions); international: e.g., Jacobs, R.E., ‘Treading Deep Waters: Substantive Law Issues in Tuvalu's Threat to Sue the United States in the International Court of Justice’ (2005) 14(1) Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal, pp. 103–28Google Scholar.

81 Germanwatch, ‘The “Huaraz Case” at a Glance’, updated 5 June 2020, available at: https://germanwatch.org/en/huaraz.

82 On the relevance of certain human rights norms, see also J. McAdam, ‘Climate Change Displacement and International Law: Complementary Protection Standards’, Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), May 2011, available at: https://www.unhcr.org/4dff16e99.pdf.

83 E.g., Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Relationship between Climate Change and Human Rights’ (15 Jan. 2009), UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61; also Humphreys, S. (ed.), Human Rights and Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

84 D. Carrington, ‘“Climate Apartheid”: UN Expert Says Human Rights May Not Survive’, The Guardian, 25 June 2019, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/25/climate-apartheid-united-nations-expert-says-human-rights-may-not-survive-crisis.

85 Bogota (Colombia), 2 May 1948, available at: https://www.oas.org/dil/access_to_information_human_right_American_Declaration_of_the_Rights_and_Duties_of_Man.pdf; Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, 7 Dec. 2005, available at: http://www.earthjustice.org/library/legal_docs/petition-to-the-interamerican-commission-on-human-rights-onbehalf-of-the-inuit-circumpolar-conference.pdf; for analysis see, e.g., J. Harrington, ‘Climate Change, Human Rights, and the Right to be Cold’ (2007) 18(3) Fordham Environmental Law Review, pp. 513–35.

86 Commission on Human Rights, Republic of the Philippines, Petition Requesting for Investigation of the Responsibility of the Carbon Majors for Human Rights Violations or Threats of Violations Resulting from the Impact of Climate Change, Case No. CHR-NI-2016-0001, available at: https://www.greenpeace.org/philippines/press/1237/the-climate-change-and-human-rights-petition.

87 Ibid., p. 7 (and throughout).

88 Respondent LafargeHolcim's Manifestation Ad Cautelam (Without Any Acceptance or Submission to Jurisdiction), 15 Sept. 2016, p. 2, available at: https://www.business-humanrights.org/sites/default/files/Lafarge%20Holcim%20Response.pdf.

89 Amnesty International, ‘Philippines: Landmark Decision by Human Rights Commission Paves Way for Climate Litigation’, 9 Dec. 2019, available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/12/landmark-decision-by-philippines-human-rights-commission-paves-way-for-climate-litigation/?fbclid=IwAR02dN5HX1EPY1_Q27UtEDbhw1HP1PReWLnfa7BqmnTIwG8e4G_Fl8PYWg4; I. Kaminski, ‘Fossil Fuel Firms “Could Be Sued” for Climate Change’, Independent, 9 Dec. 2019, available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/cop25-madrid-climate-change-greta-thunberg-fossil-fuel-lawsuit-a9239601.html?fbclid=IwAR2NyneKfakGUcWYXHF7_IgIr16L_Bm5kuEN8Rld2Gd-rQCsmp_w9EeKj-0; the relevant Commission report has not yet been published.

90 Kaminski, ibid.

91 Ibid.

92 New York, NY (US), 16 Dec. 1966, in force 23 Mar. 1976, available at: https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20999/volume-999-i-14668-english.pdf.

93 H. Cross, ‘It's a National First. A Global First. Torres Strait Islanders Are Taking Legal Action Over the Federal Government's Failure to Act on Climate Change’, National Indigenous Times, 29 May 2019, available at: https://nit.com.au/its-a-national-first-a-global-first-torres-strait-islanders-are-taking-legal-action-over-the-federal-governments-failure-to-act-on-climate-change.

94 Human Rights Committee, ‘General Comment No. 36 on Article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the Right to Life’ (30 Oct. 2018), UN Doc. CCPR/C/GC/36, pp. 14–5.

95 New York, NY (US), 9 May 1992, in force 21 Mar. 1994, available at: http://unfccc.int.

96 Decision 2/CP.19, ‘Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts’ (11–23 Nov. 2013), UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1.

97 N. 5 above.

98 UNFCCC Secretariat, ‘Clearing House on Risk Transfer’, 2019, available at: http://unfccc-clearinghouse.org.

99 Decision 1/CP.21, ‘Adoption of the Paris Agreement’ (13 Dec. 2015), UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, para. 49.

100 UNFCCC Secretariat, ‘Terms of Reference of the Task Force on Displacement’, 2017, paras 6(a) and (d), available at: http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/groups_committees/loss_and_damage_executive_committee/application/pdf/tor_task_force.pdf.

101 UNFCCC Secretariat, ‘Task Force on Displacement: Plan of Action for 2019–2021’, in ‘Report of the Executive Committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts – Addendum’ (15 Nov. 2019), UN Doc. FCCC/SB/2019/5/Add.1.

102 Ibid., p. 10.

103 Decision 1/CP.21, n. 99 above, para. 52.

104 Thornton, n. 54 above, Ch. 6.

105 A. Markandya & M. Gonzales-Eguino, ‘Integrated Assessment for Identifying Climate Finance Needs for Loss and Damage: A Critical Review’, in Mechler et al., n. 52 above, pp. 343–62.

106 Art. 9.

107 See, e.g., Thornton, n. 54 above, Ch. 6; also various contributions in Pickering, J., Betzold, C. & Skovgaard, J., ‘Special Issue: Managing Fragmentation and Complexity in the Emerging System of International Climate Finance’ (2017) 17 International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, pp. 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

108 See, e.g., UNFCCC Secretariat, ‘Introduction to Climate Finance’, 2020, available at: https://unfccc.int/topics/climate-finance/the-big-picture/introduction-to-climate-finance.

109 Decision 3/CP.17, ‘Launching the Green Climate Fund’ (11 Dec. 2011), UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1, paras 2 and 3.

110 Ibid., Annex, paras 29 and 30.

111 See, e.g., ‘Roadmap to US$100 Billion’ (2016), available at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/climate-finance-roadmap-to-us100-billion.pdf.

112 Climate Funds Update, ‘The Green Climate Fund’ (2019), available at: https://climatefundsupdate.org/publications/the-green-climate-fund-2019.

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