Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-x5cpj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-30T19:30:23.090Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Comparative Environmental Federalism: Subsidiarity and Central Regulation in the United States and China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 August 2017

Huiyu Zhao  and
Robert Percival
Huiyu Zhao
Affiliation:
KoGuan Law School, Shanghai Jiao Tong University; Shanghai University Think Tank and Shanghai Social Science Innovation ‘Research Base on National Marine Strategy and Rights’, Shanghai (China). Email: zhaohy28@gmail.com.
Robert Percival
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, Francis King Carey School of Law, Baltimore, MD (United States (US)). Email: rpercival@law.umaryland.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The proper division of responsibility for environmental protection between national and state governments has long been the subject of fierce debate. During the 1970s the United States Congress decided to shift the most important environmental responsibilities from state governments to the federal government. The main reason for this decision was to prevent a ‘race to the bottom’ in that states competing for industries could otherwise be lax in implementing and enforcing federal environmental standards. Yet, some scholars have argued that there could just as easily be a ‘race to the top’ among states as they compete to attract people and businesses concerned with environmental protection. China, in turn, is plagued with severe air and water pollution and soil contamination, which is attributed largely to ineffective enforcement of its national environmental laws. This article investigates whether China’s experience confirms the race-to-the-bottom theory. It demonstrates that devolution of responsibility for environmental protection to lower levels of government tends to result in lax implementation and enforcement of national environmental laws, particularly where national governments also create strong incentives for economic growth. It concludes that China’s highly devolved system of environmental governance is consistent with this theory, even if it does not provide conclusive evidence of its correctness.

Keywords

FederalismRace to the bottomUnited States (US) environmental lawChinese environmental lawImplementation
Type
Articles
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 6 , Issue 3 , November 2017 , pp. 531 - 549
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

My work was supported by the 2016 Fund of the Shanghai University Think Tank and Shanghai Social Science Innovation ‘Research Base on National Marine Strategy and Rights’, and special funds for the cross-cutting project, issue number 11JCY11, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (China).

References

1 See, e.g., J. Mason & M. Xu, ‘China’s War on Smog Sends Shivers through Commodities Sector’, Reuters, 23 Dec. 2016, available at: http://in.reuters.com/article/us-china-pollution-idINKBN14C0LA; ‘China Smog Sparks Red Alerts in 10 Cities’, BBC News, 24 Dec. 2015, available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-35173709.

2 R. Rohde & R. Muller, ‘Air Pollution in China: Mapping of Concentrations and Sources’, July 2015, available at: http://berkeleyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/China-Air-Quality-Paper-July-2015.pdf.

3 Lelieveld, J. et al., ‘The Contribution of Outdoor Air Pollution Sources to Premature Mortality on a Global Scale’ (2015) 525(7569) Nature, pp. 367–371 Google Scholar, at 369.

4 R. Percival, ‘The Poison Poor Children Drink: Six Lessons from the Flint Tragedy’, Jurist Academic Commentary, 13 Feb. 2016, available at: http://jurist.org/forum/2016/02/robert-percival-six-lessons.php.

5 EPA, ‘EPA’s Budget and Spending’, available at: https://www.epa.gov/planandbudget/budget.

6 MEP, ‘MEP’s Budget and Spending of 2015’, available at: http://gcs.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/201607/P020160722553024056457.pdf (in Chinese).

7 Young, O. et al., ‘Institutionalized Governance Processes: Comparing Environmental Problem Solving in China and the United States’ (2015) 31 Global Environmental Change, pp. 163–173 Google Scholar, at 163.

8 ‘China to “Declare War” on Pollution, Premier Says’, Reuters, 4 Mar. 2014, available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-pollution-idUSBREA2405W20140305.

9 R. Percival, ‘Can Legal Activist Scott Pruitt Undo Clean Air and Water Protections as Head of EPA’, The Conversation, 18 Dec. 2016, available at: https://theconversation.com/can-legal-activist-scott-pruitt-undo-clean-air-and-water-protections-as-head-of-epa-70127; O. Milman, ‘Republican Candidates’ Calls to Scrap EPA Met with Skepticism by Experts’, The Guardian, 26 Feb. 2016, available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/feb/26/republican-candidates-donald-trump-eliminate-epa-law-experts?CMP=share_btn_tw.

10 Percival, R., ‘Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models’ (1995) 54(4) Maryland Law Review, pp. 1141–1182 Google Scholar, at 1141.

11 Pub. L. 80-848, 62 Stat. 1155 (1948).

12 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401–7671q.

13 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251–1388

14 42 U.S.C. §§ 300f–300j-26.

15 42 U.S.C. §§ 6901–6992k.

16 For a more detailed description of the history of US environmental law, see Percival, R. et al., Environmental Regulation: Law, Science & Policy, 7th edn (Wolters Kluwer, 2013), pp. 89–100 Google Scholar; and Vig, N.J. & Faure, M.G. (eds), Green Giants: Environmental Policies of the United States and the European Union (The MIT Press, 2004), pp. 124–126 Google Scholar.

17 Bosselman, F., ‘The Twilight of National Land Use Policy’ (2012) 45(2) The John Marshall Law Review, pp. 237–251 Google Scholar, at 237.

18 Percival et al., n. 16 above, pp. 1096–104.

19 EPA, ‘EPA Organizational Chart’, 15 May 2017, available at: https://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/epa-organization-chart.

20 15 U.S.C. § 2617.

21 7 U.S.C. § 136v.

22 42 U.S.C. §§ 2011–2021, 2022–2286i, 2296a–2297h-13.

23 Clean Air Act, n. 12 above, § 7543.

24 Assembly Bill 32, California Global Warming Solutions Act (2006).

25 Proposition 65, Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act, CH 6.6 Calif. Health & Safety Code §§ 25249.5–25249.13.

26 California Department of Toxic Substances Control, California Green Chemistry Initiative (2008), available at: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/PollutionPrevention/GreenChemistryInitiative/index.cfm.

27 Zhang, Q., He, K. & Huo, H., ‘Policy: Cleaning China’s Air’ (2012) 484(7393) Nature, pp. 161–162 Google Scholar.

28 T.J. Ma, ‘The Logic Behind China’s Centralisation of Environmental Oversight’, China Dialogue, 16 Nov. 2015, available at: https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/8300-The-logic-behind-China-s-centralisation-of-environmental-oversight.

29 Ibid.

30 Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, 24 Apr. 2014, Art. 10. available at: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2014-04/25/content_2666434.htm (in Chinese), https://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental-Protection-Law-2014-eversion.pdf (unofficial English translation)

31 MEP, ‘Ministry of Environmental Protection Informed the Implementation of Environmental Protection Law from January to October 2016’, 30 Nov. 2016, available at: http://www.zhb.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/qt/201611/t20161130_368456.htm (in Chinese).

32 Percival et al., n. 16 above, pp. 1130–9.

33 The 2013 Air Pollution Action Plan, officially issued by the State Council in 2003, available at: http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2013-09/12/content_2486918.htm (in Chinese).

34 ‘Implementing Rule of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Surrounding Areas to Implement the Air Pollution Prevention Action Plan, China (2013)’, 17 Sept. 2013, available at: http://www.zhb.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bwj/201309/t20130918_260414.htm (in Chinese).

35 P. Cheng et al., ‘Clearing the Air on China’s New Environmental Protection Law’ , May 2014, available at: http://www.hoganlovells.com/files/Uploads/Documents/China%20alert_Clearing_the_Air_on_China_s_New_Environmental_Protection_Law_HKGLIB01_1106122.pdf.

36 So named because it is below the provincial level; the main central and local relationship does not change.

37 Q. Liu, ‘Mayors Try to Improve Air Quality Following Summons to Beijing’, Chinadialogue, 17 Aug. 2015, available at: https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/8131-Mayors-try-to-improve-air-quality-following-summons-to-Beijing.

38 Issued by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council General Office, 2 July 2015.

39 B. Zhang, ‘Never with the Pollution for Growth Anymore: The First Shock Wave from the Central Environmental Protection Inspector’, Xinhua News Agency, 14 May 2016, available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-05/14/c_1118864586.htm (in Chinese).

40 J. Gao, ‘The End of Feedback from the First Batch of Central Environmental Protection Inspectors in those 8 Provinces and Autonomous Regions – More than 3,000 People Accounted’, Xinhua News Agency, 24 Nov 2016, available at: http://www.he.xinhuanet.com/sToutiao/20161124/3546897_c_3.html (in Chinese).

41 Wang, A., ‘The Search for Sustainable Legitimacy: Environmental Law and Bureaucracy in China’ (2013) 37(2) Harvard Environmental Law Review, pp. 365–440 Google Scholar, at 440.

42 General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council General Office, 2 July 2015.

43 M. Standaert, ‘China to Direct Local Conservation Funding Efforts’, Bloomberg BNA International Environment Reporter, 18 May 2016.

44 White, T.H., The Making of the President (Grolier Educational Corporation, 1973)Google Scholar.

45 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN Doc. A/Conf.48/14/Rev. 1, 16 June 1972, available at: http://www.un-documents.net/aconf48-14r1.pdf.

46 For arguments that national regulatory programmes have economies of scale and are better equipped to deal with transboundary pollution, see Stewart, R.B., ‘Pyramids of Sacrifice? Problems of Federalism in Mandating State Implementation of National Environmental Policy’ (1977) 86(6) The Yale Law Journal, pp. 1196–1272 Google Scholar, at 1212; and Stewart, R.B., ‘The Development of Administrative and Quasi-Constitutional Law in Judicial Review of Environmental Decisionmaking: Lessons from the Clean Air Act’ (1976) 62 The Iowa Law Review, pp. 713–769 Google Scholar, at 747.

47 Revesz, R.L., ‘Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the Race-to-the-Bottom Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation’ (1992) 67 The New York University Law Review, pp. 1210–1255 Google Scholar, at 1210.

48 Esty, D.C., ‘Revitalizing Environmental Federalism’ (1996) 95(3) Michigan Law Review, pp. 570–653 Google Scholar, at 573.

49 Swire, P.P., ‘The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law’ (1996) 14(2) Yale Law & Policy Review, pp. 67–110 Google Scholar, at 67.

50 Howes, J., Dewitt, J. & R.A. Minard Jr., ‘Resolving the Paradox of Environmental Protection’ (1998) 14(4) Issues in Science and Technology, pp. 57–64 Google Scholar, at 57.

51 Esty, n. 48 above, p. 573.

52 McCurdy, C.W., ‘The Knight Sugar Decision of 1895 and the Modernization of American Corporation Law, 1869–1903’ (1979) 53(3) Business History Review, pp. 304–342 Google Scholar, at 340.

53 Louis K. Liggett Co., et al. v. Lee, Comptroller of State of Florida, et al., 1933, 288 U.S. Reports, p. 559.

54 United States v. Darby, 1941, 312 U.S. Reports, p. 115.

55 Cary, W.L., ‘Federalism and Corporate Law: Reflections upon Delaware’ (1974) 83(4) The Yale Law Journal, pp. 663–705 Google Scholar, at 665–66.

56 Revesz, R., ‘Federalism and Regulation: Some Generalizations’, in D. Esty & D. Geradin (eds), Regulatory Competition and Economic Integration (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 3–29 Google Scholar, at 21.

57 Ibid.

58 Engel, K.H., ‘State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a “Race” and Is It “To the Bottom”’ (1997) 48(2) Hastings Law Journal, pp. 271–398 Google Scholar, at 271.

59 Ibid., p. 274.

60 Cao, X. & Prakash, A., ‘Trade Competition and Environmental Regulations: Domestic Political Constraints and Issue Visibility’ (2012) 74(1) The Journal of Politics, pp. 66–82 Google Scholar, at 67.

61 Stewart, R.B., ‘A New Generation of Environmental Regulation’ (2001) 29(1) The Capital University Law Review, pp. 21–182 Google Scholar, at 21.

62 Olive, A.H., Raymond, L. & Gunasekara, V., ‘Normative Beliefs in State Policy Choice’ (2011) 65(3) Political Research Quarterly, pp. 642–655 Google Scholar, at 642.

63 Levinson, D.J., ‘Empire-Building Government in Constitutional Law’ (2005) 118(3) Harvard Law Review, pp. 915–972 Google Scholar, at 948.

64 Ibid.

65 S. Xiuyan, ‘Environmental Protection Pressure to Which Layer, People’s Daily, 13 May 2017, available at: http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2017-05/13/nw.D110000renmrb_20170513_2-09.htm.

66 Safe Drinking Water Act, 42 U.S.C. § 300h(d). The exemption for hydraulic fracking is often called the ‘Cheney exclusion’ because it was inserted into s. 322 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 at the behest of Vice President Dick Cheney.

67 Bligh, S. & Wendelbo, C., ‘Hydraulic Fracturing: Drilling Into the Issue’ (2013) 27(3) Natural Resources & Environment, pp. 7–12 Google Scholar, at 9.

68 Robinson Township, et al. v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 52 A. 3d (Pa., 2013), from p. 463.

69 N. Richardson et al. (eds), ‘The State of State Shale Gas Regulation’, Resources for the Future, June 2013, available at: http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/RFF-Rpt-StateofStateRegs_Report.pdf.

70 J. Hurdle, ‘With Governor’s Signature, Maryland Becomes Third State to Ban Fracking, State Impact Pennsylvania, 4 Apr. 2017, available at: https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2017/04/04/with-governors-signature-maryland-becomes-third-state-to-ban-fracking.

71 Abayev, I., ‘Hydraulic Fracturing Wastewater: Making the Case for Treating the Environmentally Condemned’ (2012) 24(2) Fordham Environmental Law Review, pp. 275–327 Google Scholar, at 275.

72 N. 24 above.

73 Engel, K.H., ‘Mitigating Global Climate Change in the United States: A Regional Approach’ (2005) 14(1) New York University Environmental Law Journal, pp. 54–85 Google Scholar, at 54; Engel, K.H. & Orbach, B.Y.. ‘Micro-Motives and State and Local Climate Change Initiatives’ (2008) 119(2) Harvard Law & Policy Review, pp. 119–137 Google Scholar, at 134–35.

74 Engel & Orbach, ibid., p. 123.

75 E.g., Davies, L.L., ‘State Renewable Portfolio Standards: Is There A “Race” and Is It “To the Top”?’ (2012) 3(1) The San Diego Journal of Climate & Energy Law, pp. 3–78 Google Scholar, at 3.

76 Yongnian, Z., De Facto Federalism in China: Reforms and Dynamics of Central-Local Relations (World Scientific, 2007), pp. 117–119 Google Scholar.

77 Edin, M., ‘State Capacity and Local Agent Control in China: CCP Cadre Management from a Township Perspective’ (2003) 173 The China Quarterly, pp. 35–52 Google Scholar, at 35.

78 Xu, C., ‘The Fundamental Institutions of China’s Reforms and Development’ (2011) 49(4) Journal of Economic Literature, pp. 1076–1151 Google Scholar, at 1141.

79 Zhong, W., ‘Non-Accident Logic in the Social Management of Local Government: An Analytical Framework’ (2011) 9 Zhejiang Social Sciences, pp. 36–41 Google Scholar, at 36 (in Chinese).

80 Zhang, J., et al. ‘Why Does China Enjoy So Much Better Physical Infrastructure?’ (2007) 18(3) Economic Research Journal, pp. 4–19 Google Scholar, at 10 (in Chinese).

81 Eaton, S. & Kostka, G., ‘Authoritarian Environmentalism Undermined? Local Leaders’ Time Horizons and Environmental Policy Implementation’ (2014) 218(2) The China Quarterly, pp. 359–380 Google Scholar, at 368.

82 Z. Wang, ‘Who Gets Promoted and Why? Understanding Power and Persuasion in China’s Cadre Evaluation System’, Annual Meeting of the American Association for Chinese Studies, New Brunswick, NJ (US), Oct. 2013, p. 15, available at: https://aacs.ccny.cuny.edu/2013conference/Papers/Zhen%20Wang.pdf.

83 Tao, R., ‘The “Race to the Bottom Model” of Attracting Business and Investment Conniving Pollution’ (2012) 33 Caijing Journal, available at: http://misc.caijing.com.cn/chargeFullNews.jsp?id=112401268&time=2012-12-30&cl=106 (in Chinese)Google Scholar.

84 J. Yuan, ‘China’s Price and Problems in the Process of Globalization’, Aisixiang, 3 Oct. 2006, available at: http://www.aisixiang.com/data/11218.html (in Chinese).

85 X. Lv & T. Li, ‘Huangzhong County in Qinghai Province, Local Environmental Protection Bureau Introduced Pollution Projects for Attracting Investment’, Xinhua News Agency, 17 Jan. 2005, available at: http://www.cnhubei.com/200501/ca661997.htm (in Chinese).

86 F. Xing et al., ‘Anhui Blood Lead Case Repeatedly Polluting Enterprises Environmental Protection Bureau Was Introduced’, 8 Jan. 2011, available at: http://health.sohu.com/20110108/n301922490.shtml (in Chinese).

87 ‘Let the Local Environmental Protection Departments Perform Their Duties Attentively’, China Environment News, 22 Sept. 2009, available at: http://www.cenews.com.cn/xwzx/zhxw/qt/200909/t20090922_623064.html (in Chinese).

88 ‘Environmental Protection Bureaus or “Merchants”? A Survey on the Part of the Regional Environmental Protection Bureaus Forced to Attract Investment’, China Environment News, 9 Sept. 2009, available at: http://env.people.com.cn/GB/10016621.html (in Chinese).

89 Liang, J. & Langbein, L., ‘Performance Management, High-Powered Incentives, and Environmental Policies in China’ (2015) 18(3) International Public Management Journal, pp. 346–385 Google Scholar, at 373.

90 Percival, R. & Zhao, H., ‘The Role of Civil Society in Environmental Governance in the United States and China’ (2014) 24(1) Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, pp. 142–182 Google Scholar, at 151.

91 Wu, J. et al., ‘Incentives and Outcomes: China’s Environmental Policy’ (2013) National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, No. 18754, pp. 1–48, at 26, available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w18754.pdf Google Scholar.

92 Ibid., p. 6.

93 Kostka, G., ‘China’s Evolving Green Planning System: Are Targets the Answer?’ (2013) 201(2) Frankfurt School of Finance & Management Working Paper Series, pp. 1–44 Google Scholar, at 2.

94 S. Denyer, ‘How China’s Latest Economic Stimulus Plan Undid Beijing’s Efforts to Clean its Air’, 22 Nov. 2016, available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/22/how-chinas-latest-economic-stimulus-plan-undid-beijings-efforts-to-clean-its-air/?utm_term=.1854c5c474af.

95 Percival, R.V., ‘Global Law and the Environment’ (2011) 86(3) Washington Law Review, pp. 579–634 Google Scholar; see also Percival, R.V., ‘The Globalization of Environmental Law’ (2009) 26(2) Pace Environmental Law Review, pp. 451–464 Google Scholar, at 451.

96 See, e.g., Presidential Executive Order on Promoting Energy Independence and Economic Growth, 28 Mar. 2017, available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/03/28/presidential-executive-order-promoting-energy-independence-and-economi-1; Presidential Executive Order on Restoring the Rule of Law, Federalism, and Economic Growth by Reviewing the ‘Waters of the United States’ Rule, available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/02/28/presidential-executive-order-restoring-rule-law-federalism-and-economic.

97 S. Hanley, ‘California Governor to Challenge Trump & EPA on Climate Change, Emissions’, Clean Technica, 26 Jan. 2017, available at: https://cleantechnica.com/2017/01/26/california-gov-challenge-trump-epa-climate-change-emissions.

98 H. Tabuchi, ‘What’s at Stake in Trump’s Proposed EPA Cuts’, The New York Times, 10 Apr. 2017, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/10/climate/trump-epa-budget-cuts.html?_r=0.

99 E. Mundahl, ‘Despite Environmentalists’ Fears, EPA Budget Escapes Major Cuts’, Inside Sources, 4 May 2017, available at: http://www.insidesources.com/epa-budget-escapes-major-cuts.