Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-wq484 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T03:43:12.667Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Gender, Ethnicity, and Ballot Information: Ballot Cues in Low-Information Elections

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 January 2021

Marsha Matson  and
Terri Susan Fine
Marsha Matson
Affiliation:
University of Miami
Terri Susan Fine
Affiliation:
University of Central Florida
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In November 1996, voters cast ballots for candidates running for 57 seats on 15 community advising and zoning boards in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Voters had little knowledge about the candidates or the boards that had been created only a few months earlier. The candidates campaigned for seven weeks. The local media generally ignored them. There were no incumbents and no party labels in the non-partisan contests. In low-information local elections such as these, voter cues and ballot design plays a decisive role in voter choice. The cues in this election were candidates' gender, ethnicity, campaign expenditures, and ballot position. Our results indicate that the most important cue was candidate gender; however, voters used ethnicity to decide whether they voted for men or women. The number of candidates on the ballot impacted vote share, while ballot position played no significant role. Those candidates who spent the most campaign money were also preferred. We argue that vote cues provide a means to address voter fatigue, where gender, ethnicity, and name recognition provide cues in this low-information, high voter fatigue situation. Our results suggest that by spending greater on their campaigns, Hispanic women—the most disadvantaged of the candidates—could run competitively against Hispanic men.

Type
Research Article
Information
State Politics & Policy Quarterly , Volume 6 , Issue 1 , Spring 2006 , pp. 49 - 72
Copyright
Copyright © 2006 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramowitz, Alan. 1988. “Explaining Senate Election Outcomes.” American Political Science Review 82:385–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, William C. 1975. “Candidate Characteristics, Office of Election, and Voter Responses.” Experimental Study of Politics 4:76–91.Google Scholar
Affigne, T. 2000. “Latino Politics in the United States: An Introduction.” PS: Political Science and Politics 33:523–7.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., Villarreal, Mario, and Woods, Nathan D.. 2005. “Metropolitan Latino Political Behavior: Voter Turnout and Candidate Preference in Los Angeles.” Journal of Urban Affairs 27:71–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, J.H., and Erickson, L.. 2001. “Women Candidates and Voter Bias: Do Women Politicians Need to Be Better?” Electoral Studies 22:81–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bledsoe, Timothy, and Welch, Susan. 1985. “The Effects of Political Structure on the Socio-Economic Characteristics of Urban City Council Members.” American Politics Quarterly 13:467–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borjas, George. 1999. Heaven's Door. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bovitz, Gregory L. 2002. “Electoral Consequences of Porkbusting in the U.S. House of Representatives.” Political Science Quarterly 117:455–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowler, Shaun, Donovan, Todd, and Happ, Trudi. 1992. “Ballot Propositions and Information Costs: Direct Democracy and the Fatigued Voter.” Western Political Quarterly 45:559–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branch, Karen. 1996. “Real Estate Interests Zone in on Seats,” The Miami Herald, 30 October, B1.Google Scholar
Breaux, David A., and Gierzynski, Anthony. 1991. “It's Money that Matters: Campaign Expenditures and State Legislative Primaries.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 16:429–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockington, David. 2003. “A Low Information Theory of Ballot Position Effect.” Political Behavior 25:1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Clyde, Heighberger, Neil R., and Shocket, Peter A.. 1993. “Gender-Based Differences in Perceptions of Male and Female City Council Candidates.” Women and Politics 13:1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III. 1994. “Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, Districting Formats, and the Election of African Americans.” Journal of Politics 56:1098–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III, Gaddie, Ronald K., and Ferrington, Anders. 2002. “System Structure, Campaign Stimuli and Voter Falloff in Runoff Primaries.” Journal of Politics 64:1210–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, Gary C., and Kristian Pueschel, J.. 1973. “But Who Shall I Vote for County Coroner?” Journal of Politics 36:778–84.Google Scholar
Cain, Bruce, Roderick Kiewiet, D., and Uhlaner, Carole. 1990. “Race, Ideology, and Economics Shape Immigrant Party Preferences.” Public Affairs Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Caraway, Nancie E. 1999. “The Riddle of Consciousness: Racism and Identity in Feminist Theory.” In Women in Politics: Outsiders or Insiders?, ed. Whitaker, Lois Duke. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Carroll, Susan J. 1985. Women as Candidates in American Politics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Cassell, Carol A. 1986. “The Nonpartisan Ballot in the United States.” In Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences, eds. Grofman, Bernard and Lijphart, Arend. New York: Agathon.Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J., Jones, Kathleen B., and Tronto, Joan, eds. 1997. Women Transforming Politics: An Alternative Reader. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Connaughton, Stacey L., and Jarvis, Sharon E.. 2004. “Invitations for Partisan Identification: Attempts to Court Latino Voters through Televised Latino-Oriented Political Advertisements, 1984-2000.” Journal of Communication 54:38–54.Google Scholar
Cook, Elizabeth. 1994. “Voter Responses to Women Senate Candidates.” In The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities, eds. Cook, Elizabeth, Thomas, Sue, and Wilcox, Clyde. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cook, Elizabeth, Thomas, Sue, and Wilcox, Clyde, eds. 1994. The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Darcy, Robert, and McAllister, Ian. 1990. “Ballot Position Effects.” Electoral Studies 9:5–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Leon, B. 1995. “Sex Role Identity among College Students: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” In Hispanic Psychology: Critical Issues in Theory and Research, ed. Padilla, A. M.. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Delli-Carpini, M.X., Huddy, Leonie, and Shapiro, R.Y., eds. 1994. Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology. Vol. 4. Greenwich, CT: JAL.Google Scholar
Eagly, Alice H., and Mladinic, Antonio. 1989. “Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes toward Women and Men.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15:543–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esses, Victoria M., Haddock, Geoffrey, and Zanna, Mark P.. 1993. “Values, Stereotypes and Emotions as Determinants of Inter-group Attitudes.” In Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Process in Group Perceptions, eds. Mackie, Diane M. and Hamilton, David L.. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Fiedler, Tom. 1998. “Bloc Voting a Reality of the Ballot Box,” The Miami Herald, 8 September, A1.Google Scholar
Finefrock, Don. 1996. “Dade to Give Local Areas Zoning Power,” The Miami Herald, 6 September, A1.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Joseph. 1971. Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Flannelly, Kevin J. 2002. “Voting for Female Candidates: Effects of Voters' Age, Ethnicity and Gender.” Journal of Social Psychology 142:397–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florida Department of State, Division of Elections. 2004. The Election Laws of the State of Florida. http://election.dos.state.fl.us/publications/pdf/electionLaws.pdf (September 12, 2005).Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Smith, Eric R.A.N.. 1998. “The Role of Candidate Sex in Voter Decision-Making.” Political Psychology 19:403–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Oxley, Zoe M.. 2003. “Gender Stereotyping in State Executive Elections: Candidate Selection and Success.” Journal of Politics 65:833–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaddie, Ronald K., and Bullock, Charles S. III. 2000. Elections to Open Seats in the U.S. House: Where the Action Is. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S. 2004. “Does Campaign Spending Work?” American Behavioral Scientist 47:541–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gierzynski, Anthony, and Breaux, David. 1991. “Money and Votes in State Legislative Elections.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 16:203–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gierzynski, Anthony, Kleppner, Paul, and Lewis, John. 1998. “Money or the Machine: Money and Votes in Chicago Aldermanic Elections.” American Politics Quarterly 26:160–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimenez, Martha E., Lopez, Fred A. III, and Munoz, Carlos Jr. 1992. “Introduction: The Politics of Ethnic Construction: Hispanic, Chicano, Latino.” Latin American Perspectives 75:3–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golden, Alan. 2001. “Disputed Ballots, Partisan Conflict and Constitutional Uncertainty.” American Behavioral Scientist 44:2252–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grebler, Leo, Moore, Jan, and Guzman, Ralph. 1970. The Mexican American People. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Krasno, Jonathan S.. 1988. “Salvation for the Spendthrift Incumbent: Re-estimating the Effects of Campaign Spending in House Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 32:884–907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Joanne Connor. 1998. “The Role of Gender in Open-Seat Elections for the U.S. House of Representatives: A District Level Test for a Differential Value for Campaign Resources.” Women and Politics 19:33–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grofman, Bernard, and Lijphart, Arend, eds. 1986. Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences. New York: Agathon.Google Scholar
Hajnal, Zoltan L., Gerber, Elisabeth R., and Louch, Hugh. 2002. “Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from the California Ballot Proposition Elections.” Journal of Politics 64:154–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, James T. 1996. “Biased Ballots?” Public Choice 87:259–80.Google Scholar
Hardy-Fanta, Carol. 1993. Latina Politics, Latino Politics: Gender, Culture and Political Participation in Boston. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Herron, M.C., and Sekhorn, J.S.. 2003. “Over-voting and Representation: An Examination of Over-voted Presidential Ballots in Broward and Miami-Dade Counties.” Electoral Studies 22:21–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Kevin A., and Moreno, Dario. 1996. “Second-Generation Cubans.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 18:175–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie. 1994. “The Political Significance of Voters' Gender Stereotypes.” In Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology, eds. Delli-Carpini, M.X., Huddy, Leonie, and Shapiro, R.Y.. Vol. 4. Greenwich, CT: JAL.Google Scholar
Huddy, Leonie. 2001. “From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory.” Political Psychology 22:127–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, and Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993. “The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Offices.” Political Research Quarterly 46:503–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C. 1980. Money in Congressional Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Karnig, Albert, and Welch, Susan. 1981. Black Representation and Urban Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Karp, Jeffrey A. 1995. “Explaining Public Support for Legislative Term Limits.” Public Opinion Quarterly 59:373–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2003a. “Black and Latino Voters in Denver: Responses to Each Other's Political Leadership.” Political Science Quarterly 118:107–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2003b. “Cracks in the Rainbow: Group Commonality as a Basis for Latino and African-American Political Coalitions.” Political Research Quarterly 56:199–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, David, and Baum, Lawrence. 2001. “Ballot Information and Voting Decisions in Judicial Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54:709–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Jeffrey W. 1999. “Candidate Gender and Assessments of Senate Candidates.” Social Science Quarterly 80:84–96.Google Scholar
Koch, Jeffrey W. 2000. “Do Citizens Apply Gender Stereotypes to Infer Candidates' Ideological Orientations?” Journal of Politics 62:414–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, Timothy. 1998. “The Determinants of Candidates' Vote Share and the Advantages of Incumbency in City Council Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 42:921–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Eugene C. 1960. The Politics of Nonpartisanship: A Study of California City Elections. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Leeper, Mark. 1991. “The Impact of Prejudice on Female Candidates: An Experimental Look at Voter Inference.” American Politics Quarterly 18:248–61.Google Scholar
Leighley, Jan E., and Nagler, Jonathan. 1992. “Individual and Systematic Influences on Turnout: Who Votes? 1984.” Journal of Politics 54:718–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lien, Pei-Te. 1998. “Does the Gender Gap in Political Attitudes and Behavior Vary across Racial Groups?” Political Research Quarterly 51:869–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieske, Joel. 1989. “The Political Dynamics of Urban Voting Behavior.” American Journal of Political Science 33:150–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longoria, Thomas Jr. 1999. “The Impact of Office on Cross-Racial Voting: Evidence from the 1996 Milwaukee Mayoral Election.” Urban Affairs Review 34:596–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupia, Arthur. 1994. “Shortcuts versus Encyclopedias: Information and Voting Behavior in California Insurance Reform Elections.” American Political Science Review 88:63–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, Diane M., and Hamilton, David L., eds. 1993. Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Process in Group Perceptions. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
MacManus, Susan A., and Bullock, Charles S. III. 1992. “Electing Women to City Council: A Focus on Small Cities.” In The Impact of Electoral Systems on Minorities and Women, eds. Zimmerman, Joseph F. and Rule, Wilma. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
McClain, Paula D., and Tauber, Steven C.. 2001. “Racial Minority Group Relations in a Multiracial Society.” In Governing American Cities: Interethnic Coalitions, Competition and Conflict, ed. Jones-Correa, Michael. New York: Sage.Google Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1997. “Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 41:270–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51:898–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier, Kenneth J., and Stewart, Joseph. 1991. “Cooperation and Conflict in Multiracial School Districts.” Journal of Politics 53:1123–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miami-Dade Supervisor of Elections Results Archive. 1996. http://elections.metro-dade.com/ELE96310/nov596.txt (September 12, 2005).Google Scholar
Miller, Joanne M., and Krosnick, Jon A.. 1998. “The Impact of Candidate Name Order on Election Outcomes.” Public Opinion Quarterly 62:291–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Cleta Deatherage. 1991. “Limiting Congressional Terms: A Return to Democracy.” Journal of Law and Politics 7:722–45.Google Scholar
Mohl, Raymond A. 1988. “Ethnic Politics in Miami, 1960-1986.” In Shades of the Sunbelt: Essays on Ethnicity, Race, and the Urban South, eds. Miller, Randall M. and Pozzetta, George E.. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Montoya, Lisa J. 1996. “Latino Gender Differences in Public Opinion: Results from the Latino National Political Survey.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 18:255–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montoya, Lisa J., Hardy-Fanta, Carol, and Garcia, Sonia. 2000. “Latina Politics: Gender, Participation and Leadership.” PS: Political Science and Politics 33:555–61.Google Scholar
Muller, John. 1970. “Choosing among 133 Candidates.” Public Opinion Quarterly 34:395–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, R., and Vedlitz, A.. 1978. “Racial Voting Patterns in the South: An Analysis of Major Elections from 1960 to 1977 in Five Cities.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 439:290–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson-Crotty, Sean, and Meier, Kenneth. 2002. “Size Doesn't Matter: In Defense of Single State Studies.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 2:411–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemi, Richard G., and Herrnson, Paul S.. 2003. “Ballot Design: How to Improve Life at the Ballot Box.” Spectrum: The Journal of State Government 76:35–9.Google Scholar
Oliver, J. Eric, and Wong, Janelle. 2003. “Inter-group Politics in Multiethnic Settings.” American Journal of Political Science 47:567–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Sullivan, Chris S., Chen, Audrey, Mohapatra, Simani, Sigelman, Lee, and Lewis, Erik. 1988. “Voting in Ignorance: The Politics of Smooth-Sounding Names.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 18:1094–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Padilla, A.M., ed. 1995. Hispanic Psychology: Critical Issues in Theory and Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomper, Gerald M. 1975. Voters' Choice: Varieties of American Electoral Behavior. New York: Dodd Meade.Google Scholar
Prindeville, Diane-Michelle. 2003. “Identity and Politics of American Indian and Hispanic Women Leaders.” Gender and Society 17:591–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahn, Wendy M. 1993. “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37:472–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapoport, Ronald B., Metcalf, Kelly L., and Hartman, Jon A.. 1989. “Candidate Traits and Voter Inferences: An Experimental Study.” Journal of Politics 51:917–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymond, Paul. 1992. “The American Voter in a Nonpartisan, Urban Election.” American Politics Quarterly 20:247–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rule, Wilma. 1994. “Women's Under-representation and Electoral Systems.” PS: Political Science and Politics 27:689–92.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2002. “Gender Stereotypes and Vote Choice.” American Journal of Political Science 46:20–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2003. “Political Knowledge and Gender Stereotypes.” American Politics Research 31:575–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, H. T. 1982. “The Government of American Cities.” In The Municipal Yearbook. Washington, DC: International City Managers Association.Google Scholar
Sapiro, Virginia. 1981-82. “If U.S. Senator Baker Were a Woman: An Experimental Study of Candidate Images.” Political Psychology 2:61–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sass, Tim R. 2000. “The Determinants of Hispanic Representation in Municipal Government.” Southern Economic Journal 66:609–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffner, Brian, Streb, Matthew, and Wright, Gerald. 2001. “Teams without Uniforms: The Nonpartisan Ballot in State and Local Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54:7–30.Google Scholar
Seltzer, Richard A., Newman, Jody, and Leighton, Melissa. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. London: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Sherrill, Kenneth. 1998. “The Dangers of Non-Partisan Elections to Democracy.” Social Policy 28:15–22.Google Scholar
Sigelman, Lee, and Sigelman, Carol K., 1982. “Sexism, Racism and Ageism in Voting Behavior: An Experimental Analysis.” Social Psychology Quarterly 45:263–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Squire, Peverill, and Smith, Eric. 1988. “The Effect of Partisan Information on Voters in Nonpartisan Elections.” Journal of Politics 50:169–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stack, John F. Jr., and Warren, Christopher L.. 1990. “Ethnicity and the Politics of Symbolism in Miami's Cuban Community.” Cuban Studies 20:11–28.Google Scholar
Stambaugh, Stephen J., and O'Regan, Valerie R.. 2003. “Cue Voting: Which Women Vote for Women Senate Candidates?” Politics and Policy 31:216–31.Google Scholar
Stephan, W. G. 1985. “Inter-Group Relations.” In The Handbook of Social Psychology, eds. Gardner, Lindzey and Aronson, Elliott. Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Stokes, Atiya Kai. 2003. “Latino Group Consciousness and Political Participation.” American Politics Research 31:361–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supervisor of Elections. 1996a. Treasurer's Reports. Dade County, FL.Google Scholar
Supervisor of Elections. 1996b. Table of Voters by Race and Ethnicity. Dade County, FL.Google Scholar
Supervisor of Elections. 1996c. Election Results. Dade County, FL.Google Scholar
Taebel, Delbert. 1975. “The Effect of Ballot Position on Electoral Success.” American Journal of Political Science 19:519–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takash, Paula Cruz. 1997. “Breaking Barriers to Representation: Chicana/Latina Elected Officials in California.” In Women Transforming Politics: An Alternative Reader, eds. Cohen, Cathy J., Jones, Kathleen B., and Tronto, Joan C.. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Tolbert, Caroline J., and Hero, Rodney. 2001. “Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change.” Political Research Quarterly 54:571–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomz, Michael, and Van Houweling, Robert P.. 2003. “How Does Voting Equipment Affect the Racial Gap in Voided Ballots?” American Journal of Political Science 47:46–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanderleeuw, James M. 1990. “A City in Transition: The Impact of Changing Racial Composition on Voting Behavior.” Social Science Quarterly 71:326–38.Google Scholar
Vasquez-Nuttall, E., Romero-Garcia, I., and De Leon, B.. 1987. “Sex Roles and Perceptions of Femininity and Masculinity of Hispanic Women: A Review of the Literature.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 22:13–32.Google Scholar
Walker, Jack L. 1966. “Ballot Forms and Voter Fatigue: An Analysis of the Office Block and Party Column Ballots.” Midwest Journal of Political Science 10:448–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Karnig, Albert. 1979. “Correlates of Female Office Holding in City Politics.” Journal of Politics 41:478–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Studlar, Donley T.. 1996. “The Opportunity Structure for Women's Candidacies and Electability in Britain and the United States.” Political Research Quarterly 49:861–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Sigelman, Lee. 1982. “Changes in Public Attitudes toward Women in Politics.” Social Science Quarterly 63:312–22.Google Scholar
Whitaker, Lois Duke, ed. 1999. Women in Politics: Outsiders or Insiders? 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Wolfinger, Raymond E. 1965. “The Development and Persistence of Ethnic Voting.” American Political Science Review 59:896–908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, Joseph F. 1994. “The Under-Representation of Women and Minorities in the United States.” In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, eds. Rule, Wilma and Zimmerman, Joseph F.. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Zipp, John F., and Plutzer, Eric. 1985. “Gender Difference in Voting for Female Candidates: Evidence from the 1982 Election.” Public Opinion Quarterly 49:179–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar