Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-09T17:26:58.299Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Depression and Neighborhood Violence among Children and Early Adolescents in Medellin, Colombia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 August 2013

Paulina Velez-Gomez ,
Diego Alveiro Restrepo-Ochoa ,
Dedsy Berbesi-Fernandez  and
Elizabeth Trejos-Castillo
Paulina Velez-Gomez*
Affiliation:
Texas Tech University (USA)
Diego Alveiro Restrepo-Ochoa
Affiliation:
Universidad CES (Colombia)
Dedsy Berbesi-Fernandez
Affiliation:
Universidad CES (Colombia)
Elizabeth Trejos-Castillo
Affiliation:
Texas Tech University (USA)
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Paulina Velez-Gomez. Human Development & Family Studies, Texas Tech University. HDFS MS 41230. Lubbock. TX. 79409-1230. E-mail: paulina.velez@ttu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Violence is considered one of the most important public health problems among Latino countries. In Colombia, approximately 41% of Medellin’s inhabitants have witnessed a homicide, 75% have witnessed an aggressive incident, and 40% have been victims of other types of violent incidents. Despite increased national/international attention paid to the effects of neighborhood violence exposure on childhood depression, little is still known about this phenomenon in non-clinical samples. This study examined neighborhood violence exposure and depression (negative mood, interpersonal problems, ineffectiveness, anhedonia, and negative self-esteem) among N = 320 8–12 years old youth. Data were collected from public schools in Medellin during 2009. Kovacs’ Children’s Depression Inventory was used to assess depression; neighborhood violence exposure was measured using Medellin’s Human Rights report on high-low violence rates neighborhoods where participants lived and/or attended school. Results show that 26 children reported depressive symptoms (a prevalence of 8.9 % in the total sample). Among early adolescents (boys and girls), exposure to higher levels of violence was associated with greater ineffectiveness. Gender did not moderate the relationship between violence exposure and depression subscales. Results raise awareness about the importance to further exploring other factors related to neighborhood violence exposure and depression (e.g., developmental stage, gender).

Keywords

child and adolescent depressionneighborhood violence exposuregender
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 16 , 2013 , E64
Copyright
Copyright © Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allwood, M. A. (2005). The relations of violence exposure, trauma symptoms and aggressive cognitions to youth violent behavior (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Missouri, Columbia, MO.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4 th ed. Text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Bailey, M. K., Zauszniewski, J. A., Heinzer, M. M., & Hemstrom-Krainess, A. (2007). Patterns of depressive symptoms in children. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 20, 86–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2007.00090.x Google Scholar
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Multiple Regression/Correlation for the Behavioral Sciences (2 nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Copeland-Linder, N., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2010). Community violence, protective factors, and adolescent mental health: A profile analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 176–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15374410903532601 Google Scholar
Cruvinel, M., & Boruchovitch, E. (2008). Síntomas depresivos en niños: Estudios con dos versiones del CDI [Depressive symptoms in children: Studies with two versions of the CDI]. Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, 28, 574–585.Google Scholar
Davanzo, P., Kerwin, L., Nikore, V., Esparza, C., Forness, S., & Murrelle, L. (2004). Spanish translation and reliability testing of the Child Depression Inventory. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 35, 75–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:CHUD.0000039321.56041.cd CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Barrio, V. (1999). Children depression in the last quarters of century. Revista de Historia de la Psicología, 20, 51–61.Google Scholar
Dekker, M. C., Ferdinand, R. F., van Lang, , N. J., Bongers, I. L., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2007). Developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms from early childhood to late adolescence: Gender differences and adult outcome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 657–666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01742.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duque, L. F. (2005). La violencia en le Valle de Aburra: Su magnitud y programa para reducirla. Universidad de Antioquia y Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburra [Violence in the Aburra Valey: Its magnitud and program to reduce it. University of Antioquia and Metropolitan Area of Aburra Valey] . Medellin, Colombia: Fotograficas Mario Salazar.Google Scholar
Duque, L. F., Montoya, N. U., & Restrepo, M. V. (2006). Magnitud y distribución de diferentes formas de violencia en Medellín, 2003-2004 [Magnitud and distribution of different forms of violence in Medellin, 2003-2004]. Revista de la Facultad Nacional de Salud Pública, 24, 61–72.Google Scholar
Flannery, D. J., Singer, M. I., van Dulmen, M., Kretschmar, J. M., & Belliston, L. M. (2007). Exposure to violence, mental health, and violent behavior. In Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Waldman, I. D. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 306–321). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Flannery, D. J., Singer, M. I., & Wester, K. (2001). Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 435–442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200104000-00012 Google Scholar
García, L. F., Aluja, A., & del Barrio, V. (2008). Testing the hierarchical structure of the Children’s Depression Inventory: A multigroup analysis. Assessment, 15, 153–164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191107310310 Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773 Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Wetter, E., & Cheely, C. (2008). Sex differences in child and adolescent depression: A developmental psychopathological approach. In Abela, J. Z. & Hankin, B. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 377–414). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hecht, D. B., Inderbitzen, H. M., & Bukowski, A. L. (1998). The relationship between peer status and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 153–160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022626023239 Google Scholar
Herrera-Murcia, E., Losada, Y. L., Rojas, L. A., & Gooding- Ondoño, P. (2009). Prevalencia de la depresión infantil en Neiva [Prevalence of child depression in Neiva]. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana, 27, 154–164.Google Scholar
Ingoldsby, E. M., Kohl, G. O., McMahon, R. J., & Lengua, L. (2006). Conduct problems, depressive symptomatology and their co-occurring presentation in childhood as predictors of adjustment in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 602–620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9044-9 Google Scholar
Ivarsson, T., Svalander, P., & Litlere, O. (2006). The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) as measure of depression in Swedish adolescents. A normative study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 60, 220–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08039480600636395 Google Scholar
Kashani, J. H., & Schmid, L. S. (1992). Epidemiology and etiology of depressive disorders. In Shafii, M. and Shafii, S. (Eds.), Clinical guide to depression in children and adolescents (pp. 43–64). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Kennedy, A. C., Bybee, D., Sullivan, C. M., & Greeson, M. (2010). The Impact of family and community violence on children’s depression trajectories: Examining the interactions of violence exposure, family social support, and gender. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 197–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018787 Google Scholar
Klein, D. N., Dougherty, L. R., & Olino, T. M. (2005). Toward guidelines for evidence-based assessment of depression in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 412–432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi Health Systems.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Solomon, A., Seeley, J. R., & Zeiss, A. (2000). Clinical implications of ‘subthreshold’ depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 345–351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.109.2.345 Google Scholar
Malik, N. M. (2008). Exposure to domestic and community violence in a non-risk sample: Associations with child functioning. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 490–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312945 Google Scholar
Mantilla, L., Sabalza, L., Díaz, L., & Campo-Arias, A. (2004). Prevalencia de sintomatología depresiva en niños y niñas escolares de Bucaramanga, Colombia [Prevelence of depressive symptomatology in school-aged children in Bucaramanga, Colombia]. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 33, 163–171.Google Scholar
Mazza, J. J., & Reynolds, W. M. (1999). Exposure to violence in young inner-city adolescents: Relationships with suicidal ideation, depression, and PTSD symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 203–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021900423004 Google Scholar
Méndez, F., Olivares, J., & Ros, M. (2006). Características clínicas y tratamiento de la depresión en la infancia y adolescencia [Clinical characteristics and treatment of child and adolescent depression]. In Caballo, V. (Ed.), Manual de psicología clínica infantil y del adolescente: Trastornos generales (pp. 139–185). Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Pirámide.Google Scholar
Nixon, M. K. (1999). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: Coming of age. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 24, 207–209.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424 Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Hilt, L. M. (2009). Gender differences in depression. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.) Handbook of depression (2 nd ed.) (pp. 386–404). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., van Dulmen, M. M., Yates, T. M., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (2006). Developmental assessment of competence from early childhood to middle adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 857–889. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.009 Google Scholar
Personeria de Medellin (2009). Informe ejecutivo de Derechos Humanos [Executive report on Human Rights]. Medellin, Colombia: Personeria de Medellin. Retrieved from http://www.personeriamedellin.gov.co/documentos/documentos/Informes/Situacion_DDHH2009/2009-informe-ejecutivo-derechos-humanos.pdf Google Scholar
Pfeffer, C. R. (2006). An evolutionary perspective on childhood depression. In Jensen, P. S., Knapp, P., & Mrazek, D. (Eds.), Toward a new diagnostic system for child psychopathology: Moving beyond the DSM (pp. 78–95). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Samm, A., Värnik, A., Tooding, L., Sisask, M., Kõlves, K., & von Knorring, A. (2008). Children’s Depression Inventory in Estonia: Single items and factor structure by age and gender. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 162–170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0650-z Google Scholar
Schwartz, J. J., Gladstone, T. G., & Kaslow, N. J. (1998). Depressive disorders. In Ollendick, T. H. & Hersen, M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychopathology (3 rd ed.) (pp. 269–289). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Shankman, S. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Klein, D. N., Small, J. W., Seeley, J. R., & Altman, S. E. (2009). Subthreshold conditions as precursors for full syndrome disorders: A 15-year longitudinal study of multiple diagnostic classes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1485–1494. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02117.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, A. D., Rohde, P., Kennard, B. D., & Robins, M. (2005). Relapse and recurrence prevention in the treatment for adolescents with depression study. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 12, 240–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1077-7229(05)80029-X Google Scholar
Smucker, M. R., Craighead, W. E., Craighead, L. W., & Green, B. J. (1986). Normative and reliability data for the Children’s Depression Inventory. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 25–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00917219 Google Scholar
Steele, R. G., Little, T. D., Ilardi, S. S., Forehand, R., Brody, G. H., & Hunter, H. L. (2006). A confirmatory comparison of the factor structure of the children’s depression inventory between European American and African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 773–788. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9054-9 Google Scholar
Torres, Y., & Montoya, I. D. (1997). II Estudio de salud mental y sustancias psicoactivas [II Study on menthal health and psychoactive substances] . Bogotá, Colombia: Ministerio de Salud.Google Scholar
Torres, Y., Osorio, J., & Mejía, R. (2007). Marco conceptual [Conceptual framework]. In Torres, Y. (Ed.), Salud mental del adolescente (pp. 15–66). Medellín, Colombia: CES.Google Scholar
Vinaccia, S., Gaviria, A., Atehortúa, L., Martínez, P., Trujillo, C., & Quiceno, J. (2006). Prevalencia de depresión en niños escolarizados entre 8 y 12 años del oriente antioqueño a partir del “Child Depression Inventory” – CDI [Prevelance of child depression in school-aged children between 8 and 12 years from the east of Antioquia using the Child Depression Inventory – CDI]. Diversitas, 2, 217–227.Google Scholar
Wagner, K. D. (2003). Major depression in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 33, 266–270.Google Scholar
Weiss, B., & Garber, J. (2003). Developmental differences in the phenomenology of depression. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 403–430. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579403000221 Google Scholar
Wilcox, H. C., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). Child and adolescent clinical features as forerunners of adult-onset major depressive disorder: Retrospective evidence from an epidemiological sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.10.007 Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2004). WHO guide to mental and neurological health in primary care: A guide to mental and neurological ill health in adults, adolescents, and children (2 nd ed). London, UK: Royal Society of Medicine Press.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2007). Ten facts on mental health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/mental_health_facts/en/index.html Google Scholar