Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-zzh7m Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T10:08:19.878Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Anxiety, Depressed Mood, Self-Esteem, and Traumatic Stress Symptoms among Distant Witnesses of the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks: Transitory Responses and Psychological Resilience

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 April 2014

Georg E. Matt  and
Carmelo Vázquez
Georg E. Matt*
Affiliation:
San Diego State University (USA)
Carmelo Vázquez
Affiliation:
Universidad Complutense (Spain)
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Georg E. Matt, Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego CA 92182-4611, USA. E-mail: gmatt@sciences.sdsu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Posttraumatic stress related to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and general psychological distress were examined in six cohorts of college students (N=5,412) enrolled at an American public university between Spring 2000 and Fall 2002 some 2,500 miles from New York. Consistent with data from Schuster et al.'s (2001) national survey, which used a very low threshold criterion, our findings revealed that 44% of women and 32% of men experienced at least one symptom of posttraumatic stress 6-17 days after the attacks. In contrast to these results, depression levels showed only small differences, and self-esteem and trait anxiety showed no changes. Findings indicate that 9/11-related stress responses among distant witnesses were very mild, transitory and focused in scope, suggesting resilience with respect to broader psychological and psychopathological reactions. Findings are discussed with respect to the role of physical and psychological proximity on the reactions to traumatic events in the general population.

El estrés post-traumático relacionado con los atentados terroristas del 11 de septiembre de 2001, así como el malestar psicológico general se examinaron en seis cohortes de estudiantes universitarios (N=5.412) matriculados entre la primavera de 2000 y el otoño de 2002 en una universidad pública norteamericana distante 2.500 millas aproximadamente de Nueva York De modo consistente con los datos del estudio a nivel nacional de Schuster et al. (2001), donde se empleó un criterio de corte muy bajo, nuestros resultados fueron que el 44% de las mujeres y el 32% de los hombres experimentaron al menos un síntoma de estrés post-traumático entre 6-17 días después de los atentados. En contraste con estos resultados, los niveles de depresión mostraron únicamente pequeñas diferencias y en la auto-estima y la ansiedad de rasgo no se encontró cambio alguno. Nuestros hallazgos indican que, entre testigos distantes, las respuestas de estrés relacionadas con el 11/9 fueron muy débiles, transitorias y de alcance limitado, lo que sugiere resiliencia en lo referido a las reacciones psicológicas y psicopatológicas Estos hallazgos se discuten en relación con los efectos de la proximidad física y psicológica sobre las reacciones a hechos traumáticos en la población general.

Keywords

traumaterrorist attacksstressdepressionresilienceepidemiologytraumaatentados terroristasestrésdepresiónresilienciaepidemiología
Type
Articles
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , November 2008 , pp. 503 - 515
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., et al. (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after the september 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry, 65(4), 289–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbero-Val, E., & Linley, P. A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth, positive changes, and negative changes in Madrid residents following the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 409–424.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1987). Beck Depression Inventory manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988a). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988b). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checkling (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669–673.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, E. B., Kuhn, E., Rowell, D. L., Hickling, E. J., Wittrock, D., Rogers, R. L., et al. (2004). Studies of the vicarious traumatization of college students by the september 11th attacks: Effects of proximity, exposure and connectedness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(2), 191–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. En Robinson, J., Shaver, P. y Wrightsman, L. (eds), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. Vol. I: Measures of social psychological attitudes (pp 115–160). New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., Melamed, Y., & Solomon, Z. (2006). Mental health and resiliency following 44 months of terrorism: A survey of an Israeli national representative sample. BMC Medicine, 4, 21. Available from http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/4/21/.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2006). Psychological Resilience after disaster: New York City in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attack. Psychological Science, 17, 181–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). What predicts psychological demograhic resilience after disaster? The role of resources, and life stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 671–682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boscarino, J. A., Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Utilization of mental health services following the september 11th terrorist attacks in Manhattan, New York City. International Journal of Emergencies and Mental Health, 4(3) 143–155.Google ScholarPubMed
Brewin, C. R. (2003). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Malady or myth? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder In trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2000). Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiMaggio, C., & Galea, S. (2006). The behavioral consequences of terrorism: A meta-analysis. Academy of Emergency Medicine, 13, 559–566.Google ScholarPubMed
Downie, L., y Kaiser, R.G. (2002). The news about the news: American journalism in peril. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crises? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., et al. (2002a). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 346(13), 982–987.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, S., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Gold, J., Bucuvalas, M., Kilpatrick, D., et al. (2002b). Posttraumatic stress disorder in Manhattan, New York City, after the September 11th terrorist attacks. Journal of Urban Health, 79(3), 340–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, S., Vlahov, D., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Susser, E., Gold, J., et al. (2003). Trends of probable posttraumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology, 158(6), 514–524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galea, S., Vlahov, D., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M. J., Morgan, M. D., et al. (2002c). An investigation of the psychological effects of the September 11, 2001, attacks on New York City: Developing and implementing research in the acute post-disaster period. CNS Spectrum, 7(8), 585–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herman, D., Felton, C., & Susser, E. (2002). Mental health needs in New York State following the September 11th attacks. Journal of Urban Health, 79(3), 322–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, E., Woolven, R., Durodie, B., & Wessely, S. (2006). Public panic and morale: Second World War civilian responses reexamined in the light of the current anti-terrorist campaign. Journal of Risk Research, 9, 57–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendall, P. C., Hollon, S. D., Beck, A. T., Hammen, C. L., y Ingram, R.E. (1987). Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 11(3), 289–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C.B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knight, R. G., Waal-Manning, H. J., & Spears, G. F. (1983). Some norms and reliability data for the State-trait Anxiety Inventory and the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22 (Pt 4), 245–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maes, M., Mylle, J., Delmeire, L., & Janca, A. (2001). Pre and postdisaster negative life events in relation to the incidence and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 105(1–2), 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, R. D., Amsel, L., & Suh, E.J. (2008). Response to McNally and Breslau (2008). American Psychologist, 62, 283–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxwell, S. E., & Delaney, H. D. (2003). Designing experiments and analyzing data: A model comparison perspective (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarter, L., & Goldman, W. (2002). Use of psychotropics in two employee groups directly affected by the events of September 11. Psychiatric Services, 53(11), 1366–1368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNally, R. J. (2003). Progress and controversy in the study of posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 229–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNally, R. J., Bryant, R., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention prmote recovery from traumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNally, R. J., & Breslau, N. (2008). Does virtual trauma cause posttraumatic stress disorder? American Psychologist, 63, 282–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miguel-Tobal, J. J., Gonzalez-Ordi, H., Cano-Vindel, A., Irurarrizaga, I., Rudenstine, S., Vlahov, D., et al. (2006). Posttraumatic stress and depression after the March 11 terrorist attacks in Madrid. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 69–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, L., Scourfield, J., Williams, D., Jasper, A., & Lewis, G. (2003). The Aberfan disaster: 33-year follow-up of survivors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 532–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muñoz, M., Crespo, M., Pérez-Santos, E., & Vázquez, J. J. (2004). Presencia de síntomas de estrés agudo en la población general de Madrid en la segunda semana tras el atentado terrorista del 11 de Marzo de 2004. Ansiedad y Estrés, 10, 147–161.Google Scholar
Murphy, R. T., Wismar, K., & Freeman, K. (2003). Stress symptoms among African-american college students after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191(2), 108–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
North, C. S., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(1), 82–88.Google ScholarPubMed
North, C. S., Nixon, S. J., Shariat, S., Mallonee, S., McMillen, J. C., Spitznagel, E. L., & Smith, E. M. (1999). Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of American Medical Association, 282, 755–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pérez-Sales, P., & Vázquez, C. (2007). Planning needs and services after collective trauma: Should we look for the symptoms of PTSD? Intervention: International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counselling in Areas of Armed Conflict, 5(1), 27–40.Google Scholar
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2003). Character strengths before and after September 11. Psychological Science, 14(4), 381–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenheck, R., & Fontana, A. (2003). Use of mental health services by veterans with PTSD after the terrorist attacks of September 11. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(9), 1684–1690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, G. J., Brewin, C. R., Greenberg, N., Simpson, J., & Wessely, S. (2005). Psychological and behavioural reactions to the bombings in London on 7 July 2005: Cross-sectional survey of a representative sample of Londoners. British Medical Journal, 331, 606. (BMJ, doi:10.1136/bmj.38583.728484.3A, published 26 August 2005.)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B. K., Rourke, K. M., Wilson, D., et al. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the national study of Americans' reactions to september 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(5), 581–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L., Collins, R. L., Marshall, G. N., Elliott, M. N., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(20), 1507–1512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (Eds.). (2001). Individual self, relational self, collective self. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Shalev, A. Y. (2004). Further lessons from 9/11: Does stress equal trauma? Psychiatry, 67(2), 174–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharlin, S. A., Moin, V., & Yahav, R. (2006). When disaster becomes commonplace: Reaction of children and adolescents to prolonged terrorist attacks in Israel. Social Work in Health Care, 43, 95–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., Poulin, M., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to september 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(10), 1235–1244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silver, R. C., Poulin, M., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., Gil-Rivas, V., & Pizarro, J. (2005). Exploring the myths of coping with a national trauma: A longitudinal study of responses to the September 11th terrorist attacks. In Danieli, Y., Brom, D., & Sills, J. (Eds.), The trauma of terrorism (pp. 129–141). New York: Haworth Press.Google Scholar
Smith, T. W., Rasinski, K. A., & Toce, M. (2001). America rebounds: A national study of public responses to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Preliminary findings. Chicago: NORC, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2004). Responses to trauma: Normal reactions or pathological symptoms. Psychiatry, 67(2), 170–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Sprang, G. (1999). Postdisaster stress following the Oklahoma City bombing: An examination of three community groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(2), 169–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephenson, J. (2001). Medical, mental health communities mobilize to cope with terror's psychological aftermath. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286(15), 1823–1825.Google ScholarPubMed
U.S. Surgeon General. (1999). Mental health: A report of the surgeon general. Rockville, MD: U.S. Public Health Service.Google Scholar
Vázquez, C. (2005). Stress reactions of the general population after the terrorist attacks of S11 (USA) and M11 (Madrid, Spain): Myths and realities. Annuary of Clinical and Health Psychology, 1, 9–25. (Available at http://www.us.es/apcs/vol1esp.htm).Google Scholar
Vázquez, C., Cervellón, P., Pérez Sales, P., Vidales, D., & Gaborit, M. (2005). Positive emotions in earthquake survivors in El Salvador (2001). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 313–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vázquez, C., Hervás, G., & Pérez-Sales, P. (2008). Chronic thought suppression as a vulnerability factor to posttraumatic symptoms: data from the Madrid March 11, 2004 terrorist attack. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1226–1236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vázquez, C., Pérez-Sales, P., and Matt, G. (2006). Posttraumatic stress reactions following the Madrid March 11, terrorist attacks: A cautionary note about the measurement of psychological trauma. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 9, 161–174.Google ScholarPubMed
Vázquez, C., Pérez-Sales, P., & Hervás, G. (2008). Positive effects of terrorism and posttraumatic growth: An individual and community perspective. In Linley, A. and Joseph, S. (Eds.), Trauma, recovery, and growth: Positive psychological perspectives on posttraumatic stress (pp. 63–91). New York: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wayment, H. A. (2004). It could have been me: Vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(4), 515–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, October). The PTSD checklist: reliability, validity, & diagnostic utility. Trabajo presentado en el Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.Google Scholar
Wessely, S. (2004). When being upset is not a mental problem. Psychiatry, 67, 153–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whalen, C. K., Henker, B., King, P. S., Jamner, L. D., & Levine, L. (2004). Adolescents react to the events of September 11, 2001: Focused versus ambient impact. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(1), 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar