Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-09T08:27:56.625Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Rise of Filtering Down

The American Housing Market Transformed, 1915-1929

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2016

Richard Harris
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Between 1915 and 1929 across North America most commercial builders ceased to erect dwellings for low- and moderate-income households. As a result, these households increasingly relied on housing units that had filtered down. This development had momentous consequences for the housing market and eventually for housing policy as well as for the character of American cities. The reasons for this change were complex. They included a rapid and then permanent increase in building costs coupled with an irregular decline in owner-building, the means by which many families had once housed themselves. Especially after 1918 there was a shift in consumer preferences away from housing and toward other consumer goods, notably automobiles. This was partly counterbalanced by a new appreciation by the middle class of the virtues of home ownership and improvement, but this preference was channeled into the development of large, planned, and well-serviced subdivisions. This type of residential development required larger amounts of capital and fostered the growth of a new financial instrument, the mortgage bond. Bonds redirected the savings of small investors that had previously financed small-scale land speculation, house building, and landlordism. In 15 years the urban housing market had been transformed, with large consequences for the lives of Americans.

Type
Articles
Information
Social Science History , Volume 37 , Issue 4 , Winter 2013 , pp. 515 - 549
Copyright
Copyright © Social Science History Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Andrews, B. R. (1927) The Economics of the Household. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Aronowici, C. (1934) “Housing the poor: Mirage or reality.” Law and Contemporary Problems 1 (2): 148–57.Google Scholar
Babcock, F. M. (1932) Real Estate Valuation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Baer, W. C.Williamson, C. B. (1988) “The filtering of households and housing units.” Journal of Planning Literature 3 (2): 127–52.Google Scholar
Barnett, R. (1978) “The libertarian suburb: Deliberate disorder.” Landscape 22 (4): 44–48.Google Scholar
Barrett, J. (2004) “Back of the yards,” in Reiff, J. L.Keating, A. D.Grossman, J. R. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/99.html.Google Scholar
Barrows, R. (1983) “Beyond the tenement: Patterns of American urban housing, 1870-1930.” Journal of Urban History 9 (4): 395–420.10.1177/009614428300900401Google Scholar
Bigott, J. (2001) From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Class in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869-1929. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Binford, H. (1998) “Tenement,” in Shumsky, N. L. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Urban America. Vol. 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO: 781–83.Google Scholar
Bingham, R. F.Andrews, E. L. (1924) Financing Real Estate. Cleveland, OH: McMichael.Google Scholar
Blaszczyk, R. (2003) “No place like home: Herbert Hoover and the American standard of living,” in Walch, T. (ed.) Uncommon Americans: The Lives and Legacies of Herbert Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. Westport, CT: Praeger: 113–36.Google Scholar
Borchert, J. (1990) “Social landscapes of a streetcar suburb, 1889-1930,” in Groth, P. (ed.) Vision, Culture, and Landscape: Working Papers from the Berkeley Symposium on Cultural Landscape Interpretation. Berkeley: Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California: 41–60.Google Scholar
Borchert, J.Borchert, S. (1989) Lakewood: The First Hundred Years. Norfolk, VA: Donning.Google Scholar
“Brief history of federal housing activities including housing work done at the National Bureau of Standards” (n.d.) Typescript, Record Group 167, Box 8, National Archives, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Burgess, E. W. (1925) “The growth of the city: An introduction to a research project,” in Park, R. E.Burgess, E. W.McKenzie, R. D. (eds.) The City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 47–62.Google Scholar
Burk, A. B. (1882) “In the city of homes and its building societies.” Journal of Social Science 15: 121–35.Google Scholar
Calder, L. (1999) Financing the American Dream: A Cultural History of Consumer Credit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, E.Edwards, G. (1927) The Principles of Bond Investment. New York: Holt.Google Scholar
Chambers, E. J. (1985) “New evidence on the living standards of Toronto blue collar workers in the pre-1914 era.” Histoire sociale/Social History 18: 285–314.Google Scholar
Churchill, A. L.Wickenden, L. (1922) The House-Owner's Book. New York: Funk and Wagnall's.Google Scholar
Clark, C. (1986) The American Family Home, 1800-1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. L. (1931) The Mortgage Bank: A Study in Investment Banking. London: Pitman.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. (1990) Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Costa, D. (2001) “Estimating real income in the United States from 1888 to 1994: Correcting CPI bias using Engel curves.” Journal of Political Economy 109 (4): 1288–1310.Google Scholar
Crane, J. L. (1927) “Planning suburban towns.” City Planning 3: 263–70.Google Scholar
Crone, K. (1920) “Housing in Montreal.” Social Welfare 3: 41.Google Scholar
Dalzell, A. G. (1926) “Should shack-towns be encouraged?” Canadian Engineer 50: 411–15.Google Scholar
Daunton, M. J. (1990) “Rows and tenements: American cities, 1880-1914,” in Daunton, M. J. (ed.) Housing the Workers, 1850-1914: A Comparative History. Leicester: Leicester University Press: 249–86.Google Scholar
Dennis, R. (2008) Cities in Modernity: Representations and Productions of Metropolitan Space, 1840-1930. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dewhurst, J. Frederick, and Associates (1955) America's Needs and Resources: A New Survey. New York: Twentieth Century Fund.Google Scholar
Dorau, H. B.Hinman, A. G. (1928) Urban Land Economics. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Doucet, M. J.Weaver, J. (1985) “Material culture and the North American house: The era of the common man, 1870-1920.” Journal of American History 72 (3): 560–87.Google Scholar
Doucet, M. J.Weaver, J. (1991) Housing the North American City. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.Google Scholar
Edel, M.Sclar, E. D.Luria, D. (1984) Shaky Palaces: Homeownership and Social Mobility in Boston's Suburbanization. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ely, R. T. (1923) “Foreword,” in US Department of Commerce (ed.) Mortgages on Homes. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office: 11–15.Google Scholar
Fairbanks, R. B. (2000) “From better dwellings to better neighborhoods: The rise and fall of the first national housing movement,” in Bauman, J. F.Biles, R.Szylvian, K. M. (eds.) From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 21–42.Google Scholar
Feasel, F. (1920) “The financing of residential real estate construction.” MA thesis, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Field, A. F. (1992) “Uncontrolled land development and the duration of the Depression in the United States.” Journal of Economic History 52 (4): 785–805.Google Scholar
Fisher, E. M.Smith, R. F. (1932) Land Subdividing and the Rate of Utilization. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Fogelson, R. M. (2001) Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880-1950. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fogelson, R. M. (2007) Bourgeois Nightmares: Suburbia, 1870-1930. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Fortune (1932) Housing America. New York: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Fraser, C. C. (1925) The Practical Book of Home Repairs. New York: Crowell.Google Scholar
Frederick, C. (1923) Household Engineering: Scientific Management in the Home. Chicago: American School of Home Economics.Google Scholar
Fripp, G. H. (1985) “Greensboro's early suburbs,” in Bishir, C.Earley, L. S. (eds.) Early Twentieth-Century Suburbs in North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press: 49–58.Google Scholar
Galster, G. C. (1996) “William Grigsby and the analysis of housing sub-markets and filtering.” Urban Studies 33 (10): 1797–1805.Google Scholar
Garb, M. (2005) City of American Dreams: A History of Home Ownership and Housing Reform in Chicago, 1871-1919. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gould, E. R. L. (1895) The Housing of the Working People: Eighth Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Grant, J. (1991) Money of the Mind: Borrowing and Lending in America from the Civil War to Michael Milkin. New York: Noonday.Google Scholar
Grebler, L.Blank, D. M.Winnick, L. (1956) Capital Formation in Residential Real Estate: Trends and Prospects. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gries, J. M. (1929) “Construction,” in Committee on Recent Economic Changes of the President's Conference on Unemployment (ed.) Recent Economic Changes in the United States. Vol. 1. New York: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership: 219–54.Google Scholar
Gries, J. M.Ford, J. (1931) Housing and the Community: Home Repair and Remodeling. Washington, DC: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership.Google Scholar
Gries, J. M.Ford, J., eds. (1932) Negro Housing: Report of the Committee on Negro Housing. Washington, DC: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership.Google Scholar
Gries, J. M.Ford, J., eds. (1935) Household Management and Kitchens. Washington, DC: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership.Google Scholar
Grigsby, W. G. (1963) Housing Markets and Public Policy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Halbert, B., ed. (1931) The Better Homes Manual. Chicago: Better Homes in America.Google Scholar
Halliburton, R. A. (1939) “The real estate bond house.” PhD diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Hancock, J. (1980) “The apartment house in urban America,” in King, A. D. (ed.) Buildings and Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul: 151–89.Google Scholar
Harley, G (1925) “Multi-family housing units and urban tenancy.” Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 1 (3): 371–72.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (1991a) “The impact of building controls on residential development in Toronto, 1900-1940.” Planning Perspectives 6 (3): 269–96.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (1991b) “Self-building in the urban housing market.” Economic Geography 67 (1): 1–21.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (1994) “Chicago's other suburbs.” Geographical Review 84 (4): 394–410.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (1996) Unplanned Suburbs: Toronto's American Tragedy, 1900-1950. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (2004) Creeping Conformity: How Canada Became Suburban. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (2012a) Building a Market: The Rise of the Home Improvement Industry, 1914-1960. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Harris, R. (2012b) “‘Ragged urchins play on marquetry floors’: The discourse of filtering is reconstructed, 1920s-1950s.” Housing Policy Debate 22 (3): 463–82.Google Scholar
Harris, R.Ragonetti, D. (1998) “Where credit is due: Residential mortgage finance in Canada, 1901 to 1954.” Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics 16 (2): 223–38.Google Scholar
Hayward, M. E.Belfoure, C. (1999) The Baltimore Rowhouse. New York: Architectural.Google Scholar
Hill, A. L. (1923) Redeeming Old Homes: Country Homes for Modest Purposes. New York: Holt.Google Scholar
Hoffman, S. J. (1992) “‘A plan of quality’: The development of Mount Lebanon, a 1920s automobile suburb.” Journal of Urban History 18 (2): 141–81.Google Scholar
“Home that baby built” (1926) American Lumberman, December 4, 49.Google Scholar
Hoover, H. (1923) “Foreword,” in Gries, J. M.Taylor, J. S. (eds.) How to Own Your Own Home: A Handbook for Prospective Home Owners. Washington, DC: President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership: n.p.Google Scholar
Hornstein, J. M. (2005) A Nation of Realtors: A Cultural History of the Twentieth-Century American Middle Class. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, D. (1985) The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hoyt, H. (1939) The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities. Washington, DC: US Federal Housing Administration.Google Scholar
Hurst, J. (1925) “Financing purchasers of small homes,” in National Association of Real Estate Boards (ed.) Home Building and Subdividing: Proceedings and Reports of the Home Builders and Subdividers Division. Chicago: National Association of Real Estate Boards: 185–87.Google Scholar
Hutchison, J. (1997) “Building for Babbitt: The state and the suburban home ideal.” Journal of Policy History 9 (2): 184–210.Google Scholar
Jackson, A. (1976) A Place Called Home: A History of Low Cost Housing in Manhattan. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, E. A. (1936) “The record of long-term real estate securities.” Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 12 (1): 44–48.Google Scholar
Karolak, E. J. (2000) “‘No idea of doing anything wonderful’: The labor-crisis origins of national housing policy and the reconstruction of the working-class community, 1917-1919,” in Bauman, J.Biles, R.Szylvian, K. M. (eds.) From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 60–80.Google Scholar
Kyrk, H. (1929) Economic Problems of the Family. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Lands, L. (2002) “Speculators attention! Workers and rental housing development in Atlanta, 1880 to 1910.” Journal of Urban History 28 (5): 546–72.Google Scholar
Lands, L. (2008) “Be a patriot, buy a home: Re-imagining home owners and home ownership in early twentieth century Atlanta.” Journal of Social History 41 (4): 943–65.Google Scholar
Lands, L. (2009) The Culture of Property: Race, Class, and Housing Landscapes in Atlanta, 1880-1950. Atlanta: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Lasner, M. (2012) High Life: Condo Living in the Suburban Century. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lescarboura, A. C. (1924) Home Owners’ Handbook. New York: Scientific American.Google Scholar
Loeb, C. (2001) Entrepreneurial Vernacular: Developers’ Subdivisions in the 1920s. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Lynd, R. S.Lynd, H. M. (1929) Middletown: A Study in American Culture. New York: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Marsh, M. (1990) Suburban Lives. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, A. (1938) “What retards housing? How can it go ahead?” New York Times, May 15.Google Scholar
McDonnell, BaxterEastman, (c. 1936) Canada's Home Building Requirements. Toronto: McDonnell, Baxter, and Eastman.Google Scholar
McMahon, J. R. (1925) Your House: How to Finance, Plan, Build, Remodel, and Keep Up a House. New York: Minton, Balch.Google Scholar
Meyerson, M.Terrett, B.Wheaton, W. L. C. (1962) Housing, People, and Cities. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Mintz, S.Kellogg, S. (1989) Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of Family Life. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
“Mortgage bonds in better demand” (1920) New York Times, October 17.Google Scholar
Muller, H. M. (1947) Urban Home Ownership: A Socio-economic Analysis with Emphasis on Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Nicolaides, B. (2002) My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 1920-1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
O'Connor, C. A. (1983) A Sort of Utopia: Scarsdale, 1891-1981. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
“Offer $1,200,000 mortgage bonds” (1923) New York Times, July 12.Google Scholar
Olney, D.Olney, J. (1930) The Home Owner's Manual. New York: Century.Google Scholar
Olney, M. (1991) Buy Now, Pay Later: Advertising, Credit, and Consumer Durables in the 1920s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Park, R. E. (1925) “The city: Suggestions for the investigation of human behavior in the urban environment,” in Park, R. E.Burgess, E. W.McKenzie, R. D. (eds.) The City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1–46.Google Scholar
Parker, M. A. (1925) “Creating a local market for small mortgages,” in Annals of Real Estate Practice: Real Estate Finance. Chicago: National Association of Real Estate Boards: 119–21.Google Scholar
Periodicals Publishers’ Association (1928) Experiences of Associations in National Advertising. New York: Periodicals Publishers’ Association of America.Google Scholar
Phelan, V. B. (1931) Care and Repair of the House. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Plunz, R. (1990) A History of Housing in New York City. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Printer's Ink (1938) Fifty Years: 1888-1938. New York: Printer's Ink.Google Scholar
Prosser, D. J. (1981) “Chicago and the bungalow boom of the 1920s.” Chicago History 10 (2): 86–95.Google Scholar
Radford, G. (1992) “New building and investment patterns in 1920s Chicago.” Social Science History 16 (1): 1–21.Google Scholar
Radford, G. (1996) Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R. U. (1944) “Filtering down and the elimination of substandard housing.” Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 21 (4): 322–30.Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R. U. (1949) Urban Land Economics. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
“Real estate bonds cannot be grouped” (1923) Wall Street Journal, December 7.Google Scholar
“Realm of the retailer” (1926) American Lumberman, January 30, 42–43.Google Scholar
“Realty mortgage bonds considered” (1923) Wall Street Journal, December 19.Google Scholar
Rodwin, L. C. (1961) Housing and Economic Progress: A Study of the Housing Experiences of Boston's Middle-Income Families. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Rosen, C. M. (1986) The Limits of Power: Great Fires and the Process of City Growth in America. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Saylor, H. H. (1924) Tinkering with Tools. New York: Grosset and Dunlap.Google Scholar
“Says now is time for home building” (1921) New York Times, March 11.Google Scholar
Schaefer, C. T. (1931) The Handy Man's Handbook. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Sennett, R. (1970) Families against the City: Middle Class Homes of Industrial Chicago, 1872-1890. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Simon, R. (1976) “Housing and services in an immigrant neighborhood: Milwaukee's Ward 14.” Journal of Urban History 2 (4): 435–58.Google Scholar
Simon, R. (1978) “City building process: Housing and services in new Milwaukee neighborhoods, 1880-1910.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 68 (6): 1–64.Google Scholar
Sinclair, U. (1907) The Jungle. New York: Doubleday Page.Google Scholar
Snowden, K. A. (1995) “Mortgage securitization in the United States: Twentieth century developments in historical perspective,” in Bordo, M. D.Sylla, R. (eds.) Anglo-American Financial Systems. New York: Irwin: 161–298.Google Scholar
“Society founded to teach the American people thrift” (1913) New York Times, November 2.Google Scholar
Straus, N. (1944) The Seven Myths of Housing. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Straus, S. W. (1925) “Mortgage bonds and what they have done for real estate,” in Annals of Real Estate Practice: General Real Estate Topics. Chicago: National Association of Real Estate Boards: 109–28.Google Scholar
Sturges, R. C. (1898) “The evils of our wooden suburbs.” New England Magazine 18: 739–40.Google Scholar
Talbot, M.Breckenridge, S. (1912) The Modern Household. Boston: Whitcomb and Barrows.Google Scholar
Temkin, K.Rohe, W. (1996) “Neighborhood change and urban policy.” Journal of Planning Education and Research 15 (3): 159–70.Google Scholar
Theobold, A. D. (1930) Financial Aspects of Subdivision Development: Studies in Land Economics. Chicago: Institute for Economic Research.Google Scholar
US Bureau of Labor Statistics (1959) How American Buying Habits Change. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor.Google Scholar
US Department of Commerce (1923) Report of the Building Code Committee: Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards (1932) Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Vale, L. J. (2007) “The ideological origins of affordable homeownership efforts,” in Rohe, W. M.Watson, H. L. (eds.) Chasing the American Dream. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press: 15–40.Google Scholar
Vill, M. J. (1979) “Immigrants and ownership: Home mortgage financing in Baltimore, 1865-1914,” in Mitchell, R. D.Muller, E. K. (eds.) Geographical Perspectives on Maryland's Past. College Park: Department of Geography, University of Maryland: 150–67.Google Scholar
Wakeling, A. (1929) Fix It Yourself. New York: Popular Science.Google Scholar
Walter, L. T. (1925) “Conference of sales managers,” in National Association of Real Estate Boards (ed.) Home Building and Subdividing: Proceedings and Reports of the Home Builders and Subdividers Division. Chicago: National Association of Real Estate Boards: 281–97.Google Scholar
Warner, S. B. (1962) Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston 1870-1900. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wehrwein, G. S.Woodbury, C. (1930) “Tenancy versus ownership as a problem in urban land utilization.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 148 (1): 184–98.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. (1987) The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. (1989) “Richard T. Ely and the contribution of economic research to national housing policy, 1920-1940.” Urban Studies 26 (1): 115–26.Google Scholar
Weller, C. F. (1909) Neglected Neighbors. Philadelphia: Winston.Google Scholar
White, C. (1914) Successful Houses and How to Build Them. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
White, E. (2009) “Lessons from the great American real estate boom and bust of the 1920s.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 15573. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, www.nber.org/papers/w15573.Google Scholar
Whitten, R. H.Adams, T. (1929) Neighborhoods of Small Homes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wiese, A. (2004) Places of Their Own: African-American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Williams, F.Zimmerman, C. C. (1935) Studies of Family Living in the United States and Other Countries: An Analysis of Material and Method. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Wilson, N. D. (1936) Report of the Committee on Town Planning. Toronto: Association of Ontario Land Surveyors.Google Scholar
Winnick, L. (1955) “Housing: Has there been a downward shift in consumers’ preferences? Residential housing since 1890.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 69 (1): 85–98.Google Scholar
Wood, E. E. (1918) “Constructive housing legislation and its lesson for the United States,” in Whitaker, C. H.Ackerman, F. L.Childs, R. S.Wood, E. E., The Housing Problem in War and Peace. Washington, DC: US Housing Corporation: 69–78.Google Scholar
Wood, E. E. (1935) Slums and Blighted Areas in the United States. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Woodbury, C. (1931) Apartment House Increases and Attitudes towards Home Ownership. Chicago: Institute for Economic Research.Google Scholar
Woods, R. A.Kennedy, A. J. (1962) The Zone of Emergence, ed. and abr. Warner, Sam Bass. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Worley, W. S. (1990) J. C. Nichols and the Shaping of Kansas City: Innovation in Planned Residential Communities. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.Google Scholar
Wright, G. (1980) Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago, 1873-1913. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wright, G. (1981) Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Zangerle, J. A. (1927) Principles of Real Estate Appraising. Cleveland, OH: McMichael.Google Scholar
Zunz, O. (1982) The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigration in Detroit, 1880-1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar