I first sketched out some of the ideas presented here in the introduction to a collective volume co-authored with Hana Havelkova (“Expropriated Voice: Transformations of Gender Culture under State Socialism; Czech society, 1948–1989,” in The Politics of Gender Culture under State Socialism: An Expropriated Voice, eds., Havelkova, Hana and Oates-Indruchova, Libora (London, 2014), 3–27 Google Scholar. I would like to thank all the authors from that team for providing the essential sparks for the present argument, as well as to the anonymous reviewers of this article whose suggestions were immensely helpful in improving the text.

1. Šiklova, Jiřina, “McDonald’s, Terminators, Coca Cola Ads—and Feminism? Imports from the West,” in Renne, Tanya, ed., Ana's Land: Sisterhood in Eastern Europe (Boulder, 1997), 76–81 Google Scholar; Šmejkalova, Jiřina “Feminist Sociology in the Czech Republic after 1989: A Brief Report,” European Societies 6, no. 2 (2004): 178 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2. Daskalova, Krassimira, “How Should We Name the ‘Women-Friendly’ Actions of State Socialism?,” Aspasia 1, no. 1 (2007): 214–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; de Haan, Francisca, “Continuing Cold War Paradigms in the Western Historiography of Transnational Women's Organisations: The case of the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF),” Women's History Review 19, no. 4 (2010): 547–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ghodsee, Kristen, “Pressuring the Politburo: The Committee of the Bulgarian Women's Movement and State Socialist Feminism,” Slavic Review 73, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 538–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3. See Kapusta-Pofahl, Karen, “ ‘Who Would Create a Czech Feminism?’ Challenging Assumptions in the Process of Creating Relevant Feminisms in the Czech Republic,” The Anthropology of East Europe Review 20, no. 2 (2002): 61–68 Google Scholar; Ousmanova, Almira, “On the Ruins of Orthodox Marxism: Gender and Cultural Studies in Eastern Europe,” Studies in East European Thought 55, no. 1 (March 2003): 37–50 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. Gerda Lerner cited in Astin, Helen S. and Leland, Carole, Women of Influence, Women of Vision: A Cross-Generational Study of Leaders and Social Change (San Francisco, 1991), 19 Google Scholar. Emphasis added.

5. Šiklova, Jiřina, “Are Women in Central and Eastern Europe Conservative?,” in Gender Politics and Post-Communism: Refl ections from Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, Funk, Nanette and Mueller, Magda, eds. (New York, 1993), 74 Google Scholar.

6. Havelkova, Hana, “A Few Pre-feminist Thoughts,’ “ in Funk, and Mueller, , eds., Gender Politics and Post-Communism, 64 Google Scholar.

7. I am indebted to Harriet Murav for proposing this term to me in lieu of my earlier suggestions.

8. For a similar project—an edited volume of Czech feminist texts from the mid-19th century to 1946—see Bahenska, Marie, Heczkova, Libuše and Musilova, Dana, eds., Ženy na stráž! České feministické myšlení 19. a 20. století (Prague, 2010)Google Scholar.

9. Malá československá encyklopedie, 6 vols, vol. 2 (Prague, 1985).

10. E.g., Horska, Pavla, Naše prababičky feministky (Prague, 1999)Google Scholar; Neudorflova, Marie L., České ženy v 19. století: Úsilí a sny, úspěchy i zklamání na cestě k emancipaci (Prague, 1999)Google Scholar; Malečkova, Jitka, Úrodná půda: Žena ve službách národa (Prague, 2002)Google Scholar; Bahenska, Marie, Počátky emancipace žen v Čechách: Dívčí vzdělávaní a ženské spolky v Praze v 19. století (Prague, 2005)Google Scholar; Malinska, Jana, Do politiky žena nesmí—proč?: Vzdělání a postavení žen v české společnosti v 19. a na počátku 20. století (Prague, 2005)Google Scholar.

11. On the 1960s and 1970s see, e.g., Scott, Hilda, Women and Socialism: Experiences from Eastern Europe (London, 1976)Google Scholar; Heitlinger, Alena, Women and State Socialism: Sex Inequality in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia (London, 1979)Google Scholar; Wolchik, Sharon L., “The Status of Women in a Socialist Order: Czechoslovakia, 1948–1978,” Slavic Review 38, no. 4 (December 1979): 583–602 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wolchik, , “Elite Strategy toward Women in Czechoslovakia: Liberation or Mobilization?” Studies in Comparative Communism 14, no. 2–3 (Summer/ Autumn 1981): 123–423 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haškova, Hana, “Czech Women's Civic Organising under the State Socialist Regime, Socio-economic Transformation and the EU Accession Period,” Sociologický č asopis/Czech Sociological Review 41, no. 6 (2005): 1077–1110 Google Scholar; Havelkova, Barbara, “Genderova rovnost v obdobi socialismu,” in Bobek, Michal, Molek, Pavel and Šimiček, Vojtěch, eds., Komunistické právo v Československu: Kapitoly z dějin bezpráví, (Brno, Czech Republic, 2009), 179–206 Google Scholar. The references on transformation will be included in the section on the post-1989 period below.

12. Garver, Bruce M., “Women in the First Czechoslovak Republic,” in Wolchik, and Meyer, Alfred G., eds., Women, State, and Party in Eastern Europe (Durham, 1985), 64–81 Google Scholar; Nolte, Claire E., “ ‘Every Czech a Sokol!’: Feminism and Nationalism in the Czech Sokol Movement,” Austrian History Yearbook 24 (1993): 79–100 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Feinberg, Melissa, “The New ‘Woman Question’: Gender, Nation, and Citizenship in the First Czechoslovak Republic,” in Cornwall, Mark and Evans, R. J. W., eds., Czechoslovakia in a Nationalist and Fascist Europe 1918–1948 (Oxford, 2007), 45–61 Google Scholar; Burešova, Jana, Proměny společenského postavení č eský ch žen v první polovině 20. století (Olomouc, Czech Republic, 2001)Google Scholar; Feinberg, Melissa, Elusive Equality: Gender, Citizenship, and the Limits of Democracy in Czechoslovakia, 1918–1950 (Pittsburgh, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13. Women also had women's sections in most political parties (Wolchik, “Elite Strategy,” 128). The Czech women's movement was present in the state school curriculum—I draw here on an oral history interview conducted in 2004 with my own grandmother (born 1921), who graduated from a state gymnázium (an academically-oriented secondary school and a pre-requisite for university entry) shortly before the outbreak of WWII. She stated that the list of questions for the fi nal examination included a question on the history of the Czech women's movement.

14. Skilling, H. Gordon, “T. G. Masaryk: A Radical Feminist,” Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture 10 (1991): 195–212 Google Scholar.

15. Woolf, Virginia, Orlando: Imaginární životopis, trans. Jilovska, Staša (Prague, 1929)Google Scholar.

16. Hall, Radclyffe, Studna osamění: Připsáno našim třem já, trans. Vendyš, Vladimir, (Prague, 1930 , repr. 1933, 1938, 1948)Google Scholar. Roar Lishaugen and Jan Seidl conducted signifi cant research on both homosexual subculture and homoerotic literature in the interwar period: “Generace Hlasu: Česka Mezivalečna homoeroticka literatura a jeji tvůrci,” in Putna, Martin C., ed., Homosexualita v dějinách české kultury (Prague, 2011), 209–80Google Scholar. Karla Huebner contributed most recent research to this topic and confi rmed via empirical evidence the openness of the interwar cultural milieus toward alternative views on gender identity and sexuality; she also mentions the existence of several women's groups in the artistic circles ( Huebner, Karla, “The Czech 1930s through Toyen,” in Jusova, Iveta, Šiklova, Jiřina, eds., Czech Feminisms: Perspectives on Gender in East Central Europe (Bloomington , 2016), 60–94)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17. Feinberg, Elusive Equality, 175–76.

18. Nečasova, Denisa, Buduj vlast—posílíš mír! Ženské hnutí v českých zemích 1945– 1955 (Brno, Czech Republic, 2011)Google Scholar; Feinberg, , “Battling for peace: The Transformation of the Women's Movement in Cold War Czechoslovakia and Eastern Europe,” in Regulska, Joanna and Smith, Bonnie G., eds.,Women and Gender in Postwar Europe: From Cold War to European Union (Abingdon, 2012), 16–33 Google Scholar.

19. The magazine has been in existence without interruption, albeit with changing editorial policies and content, until the present day.

20. Milada Horakova was arrested in 1949 for her uncompromising attitude to the Communist Party's actions, charged with treason, convicted in a show trial, and executed in 1950.

21. Havelkova, Hana, “Dreifache Enteignung und eine unterbrochene Chance: Der ‘Prager Fruhling’ und die Frauen- und Geschlechterdiskussion in der Tschechoslowakei,” L’Homme 20, no. 2 (2009): 31–49 Google Scholar. Havelkova identifi es three stages of this expropriation: replacing the diverse pre-war women's associations organized in the Council with a single organization subordinated to the Communist Party, dissolving this organization in 1952, and fi nally, placing the “woman question” in the custody of “experts” in the 1960s. By this last stage, she means the transfer of the responsibility for issues of women's participation in society from women's organizations to state social science research establishments (ibid.). What she does not say, perhaps because it was a given in the process of communist takeovers of all civic associations, is that the new communist rulers also took over the property of the women's organizations, expropriating them in the literal sense of the word.

22. Nečasova, Buduj vlast, 266–96.

23. Barbara Havelkova demonstrates through her comprehensive analysis of Czechoslovak legislation that “despite the eff orts toward the improvement of the status of women, gender equality was never a priority in the socialist period” (Barbara Havelkova, “Genderova rovnost,” 205). Eva Fodor, researching Hungary, shows how the records of Politburo meetings discursively defined women as citizens unsuitable for politics due to their family commitments, see “Smiling Women and Fighting Men: The Gender of the Communist Subject in State Socialist Hungary,” Gender & Society 16, no. 2 (April 2002), 241.

24. Havelkova, Hana, “Naměty k diskusi o českem genderovem kontextu,” in Knotkova-Čapkova, Blanka, ed., Ročenka Katedry genderových studií FHS UK v Praze 2005– 2006(Prague, 2007), 108–24Google Scholar.

25. Jan Matonoha, for example, illustrates the steadfast insistence on traditional portrayals of gender order in canonic Czech literary texts written after the 1950s. See: “Dispositives of Silence: Gender, Feminism, and Czech Literature between 1948 and 1989,” in Hana Havelkova and Libora Oates-Indruchova, eds., The Politics of Gender Culture under State Socialism: An expropriated voice (Abingdon, 2014), 162–87).

26. Garver, “Women in the First Czechoslovak Republic”; Feinberg, Elusive Equality.

27. Wolchik, “Elite Strategy,” 134–39; B. Havelkova, “Genderova rovnost,” 193.

28. The concepts of the dominant, the residual and the emergent in this sense were defined by Williams, Raymond, Marxism and Literature (Oxford, 1977)Google Scholar.

29. Roubal, Petr, “The Body of the Nation: The Czechoslovak Spartakiades from a Gender Perspective,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 146–50Google Scholar.

30. Musilova, Dana, Na okraj jedné návštěvy: Simone de Beauvoir v Československu (Usti nad Orlici, Czech Republic, 2007)Google Scholar; Hana Havelkova, “Dreifache Enteignung.”

31. Petra Hanakova, “The Feminist Style in Czechoslovak Cinema: The Feminine Imprint in the Films of Věra Chytilova and Ester Krumbachova,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 211–33.

32. The book was then published again in 2002, which testifies to the continued existence of an audience for the text.

33. Věra Sokolova, “State Approaches to Homosexuality, Sexological Discourse and Non-heterosexual Lives in Socialist Czechoslovakia, 1948–1989” (Habilitační práce [Habilitationschrift], Univerzita Pardubice, 2013), 145–46.

34. Oates-Indruchova, “From Raisa to Hillary: Gender Discourse in Political Speeches and Selected News Coverage of the Perestroika and Early Transition Years,” in Jiřina van Leeuwen-Turnovcova and Nicole Richter, eds., Mediale Welten in Tschechien nach 1989: Genderprojektionen und Codes des Plebejismus (Munchen, 2005), 57–71.

35. Gustav Husak, “Z projevu soudruha Gustava Husaka,” Rudé právo, March 8, 1988, 1–2. Emphasis added.

36. Ibid. Emphasis added.

37. Barbara Havelkova, “The Three Stages of Gender in Law,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 31–56.

38. Petra Hanakova,,”The Feminist Style”; Kateřina Kolařova, “The Aids-ed Perestroika: Discourses of Gender in Negotiations of Ideological Consensus in Late-socialist Czechoslovakia,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 234–56. Matonoha, “Dispositives of Silence,” in The Politics of Gender Culture (162–87).

39. Haman, Aleš, Literatura z pohledu čtenářů (Prague, 1991)Google Scholar.

40. The two novels were John, Radek, Memento (Prague, 1986)Google Scholar, and Frybova, Zdena, Z neznámých důvodů (Prague 1988)Google Scholar.

41. Tolson, Andrew, The Limits of Masculinity (London, 1987; London, 1977)Google Scholar.

42. Oates-Indruchova, “The Void of Acceptable Masculinity during Czech State Socialism: The Case of Radek John's Memento,” Men & Masculinities 8, no. 4 (2006): 428–50.

43. Oates-Indruchova, “The Beauty and the Loser: Cultural Representations of Gender in Late State Socialism,” Signs 37, no. 2 (Winter 2012): 357–83.

44. Sokolova, “State Approaches to Homosexuality,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 82–108.

45. Oates-Indruchova, “The Ideology of the Genderless Sporting Body: Refl ections on the Czech State-socialist Concept of Physical Culture,” in Naomi Segal, Lib Taylor, and Roger Cook, eds., Indeterminate Bodies, (Basingstoke, 2003), 48–66.

46. Nolte, “Every Czech a Sokol!,” 79–100.

47. Oates-Indruchova, “The Ideology of the Genderless Sporting Body” in Segal, Taylor and Cook, Indeterminate Bodies.

48. Jiřina Šmejkalova, Marie Čermakova, Hana Havelkova and Libora Indruchova, “Democratisation, Social and Political Change and Women's Movements: Final Report— Czech Republic,” British Research Council Award Ref. No. R 000 23 4258, unpublished, n.d. [1995].

49. Kateřina Zabrodska, “Between Femininity and Feminism: Negotiating the Identity of a ‘Czech Socialist Woman’ in Women's Accounts of State Socialism,” in The Politics of Gender Culture, 109–32.

50. Ibid., 126, 127.

51. Oates-Indruchova, “Discourses of Gender in Pre- and Post-1989 Czech Culture” (PhD dissertation, Lancaster University, 2001).

52. I fi rst argued against the perspective on feminism as a western import and instead proposed the approach to 1990s texts on gender and the form and agenda of east central European feminism(s) written by Czech scholars, namely by Hana Havelkova, Jitka Malečkova, Jiřina Šiklova and Jiřina Šmejkalova-Strickland, as developing a home-grown gender theory, rather than rejecting feminism, in a footnote to a small article in Czech ( Oates-Indruchova, Libora, “Tak pěkně od začatku: o vztahu sociologie a kategorie gender,” in Oates-Indruchova, Libora, ed., Tvrdošíjnost myšlenky: od feministické kriminologie k teorii genderu (Publikace na počest Prof. Gerlindy Šmausové) (Prague, 2011), 76–86 Google Scholar) and sketched it out further in the introduction to The Politics of Gender Culture (Hana Havelkova, Libora Oates-Indruchova, “Expropriated Voice”, 3–27). This perspective on the eastwest discussions on feminism served as the starting point for the writing of the present article. The idea was recently echoed by Simona Fojtova in “Contested Feminism: The East/West Feminist Encounters in the 1990s”, in Czech Feminisms, 111–25.

53. Barbara Einhorn mentions 37 registered women's organizations by early 1991 (“Where Have All the Women Gone? Women and the Women's Movements in East Central Europe,” Feminist Review 39, no. 1 (1991), 30); Haškova cites their number as 70 by the early 1990s (“Czech Women's Civic Organising,” 1083).

54. Data from the author's archive. In the mid-1990s I researched and collected all gender-related syllabi since 1990.

55. Čermakova, , Gatnar, Lumir and Nechvatalova, Eva, ed. Sborník překladů z evropské a americké feministické sociologie I, II (Prague, 1992, 1993)Google Scholar.

56. Iniciály 2, no. 25 (Feminismus … Ano?, 1992).

57. Hendrychova, Soňa, “Z historie ženskeho hnuti v Československu,” in Havelkova, Hana, ed., Lidská práva, ženy a společnost (Prague, 1992), 9–15 Google Scholar; Horska, Pavla and Peškova, Jaroslava, “Rozhovor mezi filosofkou a historičkou o ženske otazce v Čechach,” Filosofi cký časopis 40, no. 5 (1992): 757–68Google Scholar.

58. See Havelkova, Hana, “ ‘Patriarchy’ in Czech Society,” Hypatia 8, no. 4 (Fall 1993): 89–96 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Havelkova, Hana, “Transitory and Persistent Diff erences: Feminism East and West,” in Scott, Joan W., Kaplan, Cora, and Keates, Debra, eds., Transitions, Environments, Translations: Feminism in International Politics, (London 1997), 56–62 Google Scholar; Šiklova, Jiřina, “Backlash,” Social Research 60, no. 4 (Winter 1993): 737–49Google Scholar; Šmejkalova-Strickland, Jirina, “Do Czech Women Need Feminism?: Perspectives of Feminist Theories and Practices in Czechoslovakia,” Women's Studies International Forum 17, no. 2–3 (1994): 277–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Šmejkalova-Strickland, Jiřina, “Revival? Gender Studies in the ‘Other’ Europa,” Signs 20, no. 4 (Summer 1995): 1000–06CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Malečkova, Jitka, “Gender, Nation and Scholarship: Refl ections on Gender/Women's Studies in the Czech Republic,” in Maynard, Mary and Purvis, June, eds., New Frontiers in Women's Studies: Knowledge, Identity and Nationalism (London, 1996), 96–112 Google Scholar.

59. Nash, Rebecca, “Exhaustion from Explanation: Reading Czech Gender Studies in the 1990s,” European Journal of Women's Studies 9, no. 3 (2002): 302 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60. Ibid., 305.

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64. The generalization of “women” is a great part of the problem on both sides: “western” feminist scholars view their “eastern” counterparts as representing all ECE women, rather than as feminist scholars theorizing about Czech women; and the Czech feminist scholars too oft en assume that they are speaking for all Czech women, although in the absence of empirical evidence, their impression of Czech women's attitudes to feminism could only have been experiential or come from the media.

65. Havelkova, H., “Patriarchy”; Šmejkalova-Strickland, “Do Czech Women Need Feminism?”; Šiklova, “Feminism and the Roots of Apathy in the Czech Republic,” Social Research 64, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 258–80Google Scholar.

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67. Boučkova, Tereza, Indiánský Běh, 2nd expanded ed. (Prague, 1992)Google Scholar; “Indian Run (Excerpt),” Trafika 4, no. Winter (1994): 73–86.

68. Oates-Indruchova, “The Imperative of Moral Integrity in Tereza Boučkova's Indian Run,” in Maria-Sabina Draga-Alexandru, Madalina Nicolaescu, and Helen Smith, eds., Women's Voices in Postcommunist Eastern Europe, vol 1 (Bucharest, 2005), 71–88.

69. Květa Legatova, Jozova Hanule (Prague, 2002); Želary (Prague 2001).

70. Feinberg, Elusive Equality, 10.

71. H. Havelkova explicitly divided her own writing in the 1990s into the kind aimed at a western audience (texts mainly challenging western theoretical concepts) and at a Czech audience (texts explaining the usefulness of feminist concepts and the category of gender). See “Affi damento,” in Marie Chřibkova, Josef Chuchma and Eva Klimentova, eds., Nové čtení světa I: Feminismus devadesátých let českýma očima (Prague, 1999), 58–59.

72. Sociologický č asopis 31, no. 1 (Gender v sociálních vědách a otázky feminismu 1995).

73. Funk and Mueller, ed., Gender Politics and Post-Communism. Google Scholar lists 444 citations of the book at the time of writing.

74. Ibid., ix. Emphasis added.

75. Funk, introduction to Gender Politics and Post-Communism, 3.

76. Ibid.

77. Ibid., 14.

78. Šmejkalova-Strickland, “Revival?,” 1001.

79. Šmejkalova, “On the Road: Smuggling Feminism across the Post-Iron Curtain,” in Margit Feischmidt, Eniko Magyari-Vincze, and Violetta Zentai, eds., Women and Men in East European Transition (Cluj, 1996), 28.

80. Šiklova, “McDonald’s.”

81. Šmejkalova, “Co Je Feminismus: Kam s ni/m?, Part 1–5.” Tvar 2, no. 37–41 (1991).

82. I have drawn this conclusion from my own media archive that I systematically collected in the fi rst half of the 1990s, the newspaper clipping service commissioned by the Gender Studies Center in Prague from the same period, and also from my own participation in this NGO.

83. Horska, Naše prababičky feministky, 90.

84. Bahenska, Počátky emancipace, 144.

85. Matonoha, “Dispositives of Silence.”

86. Libora Indruchova, “Women in the Czech Press,” personal archive of the author, unpublished, 1993.

87. Jaroslav Spurny, “Sila soudcovskeho zvyku,” Respekt, September 21–27, 1992, 12. The phrase “excessive feminization” being associated with a critical state of aff airs in some industries was not new in 1992. For example, in 1972 it was used in a radio broadcast on the shortcomings of the publishing industry by the Deputy Head of the Department of Culture of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Vladimir Solecky, “Komentař [Commentary],” Prague, 1972).

88. Indruchova, “The Construction of Femininity in Contemporary Billboard Advertising in the Czech Republic,” in Marie Čermakova, ed., Women, Work and Society (Prague, 1995), 69–78; “Žena na ulici. (Stereo) typizace ženy v současne velkoplošne reklamě v Česke republice,” Sociologický časopis 31, no. 1 (1995): 85–104.

89. H. Havelkova, “A Few Pre-feminist Thoughts,” 62; Heitlinger, “The Impact of the Transition from Communism on the Status of Women in the Czech and Slovak Republics,” in Gender Politics and Post-Communism, 103.

90. Indruchova, “Western Feminist Literary Theory vis-a-vis Czech Literature and Culture” (MA thesis, Lancaster University, 1992).

91. Josef Škvorecky, “Je možne mluvit a psat spravně bez diskriminace?: dobrodružstvi americkeho feminismu,” Respekt, November 16, 1992, 13; “Je možne mluvit se ženou bez pohlavniho obtěžovani?: Dobrodružstvi americkeho feminismu,” Respekt, September 28, 1992, 13; “Je možny sex bez znasilněni?: Dobrodružstvi americkeho feminismu,” Respekt, August 10, 1992, 10; Ota Ulč and Vladimir Stwora, “O velkem sexualnim harašeni,” Mladý svět, January 15, 1993, 40–41; Ulč, “Přizrak sexualniho harašeni,” Mladý svět, March 4, 1994, 44.

92. Harašit as a verb literally means “to rattle” and fi guratively “to lose [one’s] marbles.” To my knowledge, however inimical to feminism and sexist Škvorecky's articles are, he always ever used sexuální obtěžování (the correct translation of “sexual harassment”) in his work.

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97. Jiři Houška and Vojtěch Tlusty, “Ke kritice soudobe buržoazni sociologie,” Tvorba, September 13, 1972, 12–13; Siracky, “Začiname.”

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