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Chełm's Unraveling: The Holocaust and Interethnic Violence in Nazi-Occupied Poland
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 February 2023
Abstract
This article explores the myriad ways that Polish and Ukrainian residents engaged in violent and cruel behavior during World War II through a case study of the Chełm region. Under Nazi occupation, this formerly peaceful community exploded into a horrific scene of nationalist and popular violence. Jews were widely assaulted by their Polish and Ukrainian countrymen; Poles and Ukrainians engaged in mutual killings and ethnic cleansing; rural villagers were subjected to countless raids from area partisans; and escaped Soviet POWs were often denounced or otherwise attacked by area residents. Treating this outbreak as a whole, I argue that anti-Jewish violence was embedded in a vicious social transformation that engendered an array of crimes against multiple groups. By interweaving the fates of different ethnicities into a single study, my paper contextualizes Polish complicity during the Holocaust and highlights the sordid interactions between the German invaders, Jewish citizens, and local Christian society.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies
Footnotes
I would like to thank Thomas Kühne, Wendy Lower, David Silberklang, and several anonymous reviewers for their invaluable feedback on this article and related projects. My research was made possible through the generous support of the Claims Conference, European Holocaust Research Infrastructure, and the International Institute for Holocaust Research at Yad Vashem.
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59. APL, 514/38, Report for February 1943 (Feb. 24, 1943), 42.
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70. USHMM, RG-15.177M, Reel 3, SSKL 70, Testimony of Rywka Segał (April 8, 1945), 13; Protocol of the main hearing (June 23, 1945), 33–36.
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74. Michael Temchin, The Witch Doctor: Memoir of a Partisan (New York, 1992), 72.
75. Grabowski, Hunt for Jews, 83.
76. Incomplete German records indicate at least 6,000 Soviet POWs escaped German camps in the General Government during the winter of 1941/42. NARA, T501/221, 968 (Nov. 27. 1941), 967 (Dec. 2, 1941), 1115 (Dec. 16, 1941), and 833 (Feb. 2, 1942).
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85. USHMM, RG-15.175M, Reel 14, SAL 75. Testimony of Jan Kozlowski (Oct. 2, 1947), 5; Interrogation of Edward Fusiarz (Dec. 23, 1949), 211.
86. Archiwum Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (AIPN) Lublin, SSKL 58, Trial of Piotr Daciuk; SWL 21, Trial of Mikołaj Rutkowski.
87. USHMM, RG-15.176M, Reel 16, SOL 22, Trial of Jan Wielebski, 102–24.
88. Julian Tobiasz focuses exclusively on the support provided by Polish society, but briefly concedes this point. Julian Tobiasz, Na tyłach wroga: obywatele radzieccy w ruchu oporu na ziemiach polskich: 1941–1945 (Warsaw, 1972), 81.
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96. USHMM, RG-15.011M, Reel 8, File 107, KdO Lublin Telegram (Sept. 21, 1943), 18.
97. VHA, Interview 27879: Chil Grynszpan (April 4, 1997); Klukowski, Dziennik, 290 (Oct. 21, 1942), 319–20 (Feb. 22, 1943).
98. Wewryk, To Sobibor and Back, 124.
99. APL, 498/68, Report of KH Chełm for April 1943 (May 5, 1943), 131.
100. Krystyna Kersten and Tomasz Szarota, Wieś polska 1939–1948, vol. 3 (Warsaw, 1970), 333.
101. Ireneusz Caban and Zygmunt Mańkowski, eds., Zwiazek Walki Zbrojnej i Armia Krajowa, vol. 2 (Lublin, 1971), 28.
102. Paweł Markiewicz, “The Ukrainian Central Committee, 1940–1945: A Case of Collaboration in Nazi-Occupied Poland” (PhD diss., Jagiellonian University, 2018).
103. USHMM, RG-67.014M, Reel 286, H283, File 3, Review of Ukrainian Press, 1008 (Nov. 1, 1942). Historians estimate that 20,000 Ukrainian expatriates came to the General Government from Soviet-occupied Polish territory, many of whom returned to the east after June 1941. Zajączkowski, Ukraińskie podziemie, 87–88.
104. Nicholas Terry, The Trawniki Men: Soviet Prisoners of War and Ukrainian Civilians in the Service of the SS, 1941–1945 (Unpublished Report for the Metropolitan Police, 2011), 63–64, quoting a July 1943 report of UDK activist Iaroslav Dzindra.
105. Ryszard Torzecki, Polacy i Ukraińcy: sprawa ukraińska w czasie II wojny światowej na terenie II Rzeczypospolitej (Warsaw, 1993); Robert Ziętek, “Konflikt polsko-ukraiński na Chełmszczyźnie i południowym Podlasiu w okresie okupacji niemieckiej,” Rocznik Chełmski 7 (2001), 251–89.
106. APL, 514/38, Report of Polizeireiterabteilung-III for 26.10–25.11.1943 (Nov. 23, 1943), 151. This is an exaggeration but reflects an uneven burden that was true.
107. NARA, T992/4, Vol. 11, Hans Frank Diary, 293 (April 18, 1941); Frank Golczewski, “Shades of Grey: Reflections on Jewish-Ukrainian and German-Ukrainian Relations in Galicia,” in Ray Brandon and Wendy Lower, eds., The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization, eds. (Bloomington, 2010), 114–55.
108. Provincial Archives of Alberta (PAA), Michael Chomiak Papers, 85.191/59, List of Ukrainian activists killed in the Chełm and Podlasie regions (Jan. 22, 1944).
109. USHMM, RG-15.011M, Reel 2, File 33, KdGend Lublin to KdO Lublin (April 22, 1944), 62.
110. Zajączkowski, Ukraińskie podziemie, 237ff.
111. PAA, Michael Chomiak Papers, 85.191/59, Commentary on Hrubieszów County.
112. Grzegorz Motyka, Tak było w Bieszczadach: walki polsko-ukraińskie 1943–1948 (Warsaw, 1999), 136.
113. NARA, T175/73, Krüger to Himmler (Jan. 28, 1943), 2590448.
114. PAA, 85.191/59, List of Ukrainian activists killed in the Chełm and Podlasie regions (Jan. 22, 1944); Commentary on events in Hrubieszów County by UDK-Hrubieszów (Chrusztsch).
115. PAA, 85.191/59, Report on the Situation of the Ukrainian Population in the Lublin District (Dec. 9, 1943).
116. Waldemar Lotnik, Nine Lives: Ethnic Conflict in the Polish-Ukrainian Borderlands (London, 1999), 66.
117. USHMM, RG-15.177M, Reel 5, SSKL 143, Testimony of Czesława Mekalska (March 21, 1946), 68.
118. Igor Hałagida, “Ukraińskie straty osobowe w dystrykcie lubelskim (październik 1939−lipiec 1944)–wstępna analiza materiału statystycznego,” Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość 29, no. 1 (2017): 383–86.
119. APL, 1072/23, Information Dispatch (Sep. 30, 1943), 14.
120. Brian Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth Century Poland (New York, 2000); Cała, Eternal Enemy.
121. On increased communalism: Ervin Staub, The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (Cambridge, Eng., 1989); Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago, 1996). On atomization: Jan Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement, 1939–1944 (Princeton, 1979).
122. Marcin Zaremba, “The ‘War Syndrome’: World War II and Polish Society,” in Stefan-Ludwig Hoffman, ed., Seeking Peace in the Wake of War: Europe, 1943–1947 (Amsterdam, 2015), 62.
123. NARA, T501/217, Report from OFK Lublin (Sep. 21, 1943), 435.
124. Bartov, Anatomy of Genocide, 247; Natalia Aleksiun, “Intimate Violence: Jewish Testimonies on Victims and Perpetrators in Eastern Galicia,” Holocaust Studies 23, no. 1–2 (2017): 17–33; Anna Wylegała, “About “Jewish Things” Jewish Property in Eastern Galicia during World War,” Yad Vashem Studies 44, no. 2 (2016): 83–119.
125. Emanuel Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations during the Second World War (Evanston, 1992), 77.
126. Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York, 2017 [1992]); Scott Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca, 2008); Fuji, Killing Neighbors.
127. Jared McBride, “Peasants into Perpetrators: The OUN-UPA and the Ethnic Cleansing of Volhynia, 1943–1944,” Slavic Review 75, no. 3 (September 2016): 630–54; Frydel, “Judenjagd.”
128. Alexander Korb, Im Schatten des Weltkriegs Massengewalt der Ustaša gegen Serben, Juden und Roma in Kroatien 1941–1945 (Hamburg, 2014); Bergholz, Violence as a Generative Force; Schnell, Räume des Schreckens.
129. Randall Collins, Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory (Princeton, 2009), 20.
130. Gross, Neighbors, 133.
131. Susanne Karstedt, Hollie Byseth Brehm, and Laura Frizzell, “Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and Theories of Crime: Unlocking Criminology’s Potential,” Annual Review of Criminology 4 (2021): 75–97.
132. For criticism of national groupings, Tara Zahra, “Imagined Noncommunities: Indifference as a Category of Analysis,” Slavic Review 69, no. 1 (Spring 2010), 93–119.
133. APL, 514/38, Report of Polizeireiterabteilung-III (March 24, 1943), 52; Wojciech Lada, Bandyci z Armii Krajowej (Krakow, 2018).