1 A brief but extremely valuable introduction to Islamic science in general is given in Sabra, A. I., “The Islamic Scientific Enterprise,” in Lewis, B., ed., Islam and the Arab World (N.Y.: A.A. Knopf, 1976), pp. 181–200.Google Scholar

The best available survey of Islamic astronomy and astrology is contained in an article by Nallino, C. A., “Sun, Moon, and Stars (Muhammadan),” in Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh, 1921).Google Scholar There are as yet no general works which give an accurate picture of the history of Islamic astronomy. Nallino’s Arabian Astronomy: Its History During Medieval Times (Rome, 1911), available only in Arabic and Italian, is mistitled; it is actually a penetrating study of the origins of Islamic astronomy. The chapter on Islamic astronomy in Dreyer’s, J. L. E.History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (reprinted N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1953)Google Scholar, is now very much out of date. The chapters on astronomy and mathematics in Nasr’s, S. H.Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study (London: World of Islam Festival Publishing Co., Ltd., 1976)Google Scholar, are riddled with errors of fact and interpretation; and ignore the particularly Islamic aspects of Islamic astronomy and mathematics (see my review in Journal for the History of Astronomy, 89 (1978), pp. 212–19 (reprinted in Bibliotheca Orientalies, 35, 1978), pp. 339–43. A new survey of the main features of Islamic astronomy and of the major contributions of some of the leading Muslim astrojiomers, prepared by the present writer (up to and including al-BĪrūnĪ) and B.A. Rosenfeld (after al-BĪrūnĪ), will appear in the forthcoming General History of Astronomy, to be published by Cambridge University Press.

A valuable survey of Islamic cosmology by Jachimowicz, E. is contained in Blacker, C. and Loewe, M., eds., Ancient Cosmologies (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1975), pp. 143–71.Google Scholar

A useful summary of Islamic astrology, albeit now out of date, is contained in C. A. Nallino’s article, “Astrology,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., as well as in his article in Hastings Encyclopaedia, cited above.

A penetrating survey of Islamic mathematics, based on the available primary and secondary published literature, was made by Youschkeitch, A. P. and first appeared in his Istoriya matematiki v srednie veka (Moscow, 1961)Google Scholar, translated as Die Geschichte der Mathematik im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1964). The relevant part of this work is now available with additions and corrections by the author, and an updated bibliography (particularly important for the list of recent Soviet publications on Islamic mathematics), as Les mathématiques arabes (VIII^e–XV^e siècles) (Paris: J. Vrin, 1976). The recent publication by Daffa, A. A., The Muslim Contribution to Mathematics (London: Croom-Helm/Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1977) ignores all of the primary sources (see my review in History of Science, 17 (1979), pp. 295–96).Google Scholar All that needs be said of the same author’s A Brief Exposition of Arabic and Islamic Scientific Heritage [in Arabic], (N.Y. : John Wiley & Sons, 1979), is that it replaces an earlier work of comparable merit by Q. H. Tuqan.

Articles on various aspects of Islamic science and on individual Muslim scientists are listed in Pearson, J. D., index Islamicus (Cambridge: W. Heffer, 1958-Pres.)Google Scholar; and Nasr, S. H., An Annotated Bibliography of Islamic Science, of which the first two parts were published in Tehran, 1975, 1978Google Scholar (it is to be hoped that this publication project will continue). See also the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st, 2nd eds. (hereafter EI₁, EI₂); and the Dictionary of Scientific Biography (hereafter DSB). Sarton’s, Introduction to the History of Science, 3 vols. (Baltimore, 1927–48)Google Scholar, is also useful for bibliographical references.

2 The basic reference works to the original sources for Islamic science are Suter, H., “Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber und ihre Werke,” Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften, 10 (1900) and 14 (1902), pp. 157–85Google Scholar; and the additions by Renaud, H. P. J. in Isis, 18 (1932), pp. 166–83;CrossRefGoogle ScholarBrockelmann, C., Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1943–49) and Supplementbande, 3 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1937–42);Google ScholarStorey, C. A., Persian Literature: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey, Vol. II (London: Luzac & Co., 1958); and now Sezgin, F., Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band V: Mathematik, Band VI: Astronomie (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974, 1978)Google Scholar, Band VII: Astrologie [to appear]. For some reason Sezgin ignores astronomical timekeeping, as well as folk astronomy and the various categories of non-technical literature on the prayer times and the qibla in his volume on astronomy. For astrology, see Ullmann, M., Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972).Google Scholar For scientific manuscripts in Istanbul and Cairo, see Krause, M., “Stambuler Handschriften islamischer Mathematiker,” Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik A stronomie und Physik, B3:4 (1936), pp. 437–532;Google Scholar and King, D. A., A Catalogue of the Scientific Manuscripts in the Egyptian National Library [in Arabic], (Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization [in press]).Google Scholar

3 In a chapter on astronomy in the forthcoming Cambridge History of Arabic Literature (to be published by Cambridge University Press) I have attempted to survey these categories in greater detail.

4 For references, see Note 2 above. I have reviewed Vols. V and VI in Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99 (1979) and Journal for the History of Astronomy, 11 (1980), respectively.

5 All currently available catalogs are listed in Sezgin, op. cit. (Note 2), Vol. VI.

6 On the anwā’ literature, see Nallino, C. A., Raccolta di Scritti Editi e Inediti, Vol. 5: Astrologia - Astronomia - Geografia (Rome: Instituto per l’Oriente, 1944), pp. 152–97;Google Scholar the article “Anwā’” in EI₂ by Ch. Pellat (who edited the treatise of Ibn Qutayba); and P. Kunitzsch’s article, “Ibn Qutayba,” in DSB.

7 In a series of studies, as yet mainly unpublished, I have attempted to use this material to investigate these two particular problems. See, for example, my note on the origin of the definitions of the times of the daytime prayers in Islam formulated in Maeyama, Y. and Saltzer, W. G., eds., Prismata: Festschrift für Willy Hartner (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1977), pp. 193–95.Google Scholar A survey of my findings concerning the orientation of medieval Islamic architecture will be presented at the 190th Annual Meeting of the American Oriental Society, to be held in San Francisco in April 1980.

8 On the transmission of Indian and Sasanian astronomy to Islam, see Pingree, D., “Indian Influence on Sassanian and Early Islamic Astronomy and Astrology,” The Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, 34–35 (1964–66), pp. 118–126.Google Scholar

9 On the transmission of Greek astronomy to Islam, see Pingree, D., “The Greek Influence on Early Islamic Mathematical Astronomy,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 93 (1973), pp. 32–43;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Toomer, G., “Ptolemaic Astronomy in Islam,” Journal for the History of Astronomy, 8 (1977), pp. 204–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 The medieval Latin translation of al-KhwārizmĪ’s ZĪj was published as Suter, H.et al., “Die astronomischen Tafeln des Muhammed ibn Mūsā al-KhwārizmĪ …,” Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Skrifter, 7; R., Hist, og filos. Afd., 3:1 (1914).Google Scholar For a translation of the text, a commentary, and an analysis of the tables, see Neugebauer, O., “The Astronomical Tables of al-KhwārizmiĪ,” Kgl. Danske Vidensk. hist.-fil. Skrifter, 4:2 (1962).Google Scholar For more information on the original ZĪj of al-KhwārizmiĪ, see Goldstein, B.R., Ibn al-Muthannā’s Commentary on the Astronomical Tables of al-KhwārizmiĪ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).Google Scholar

11 The Arabic text of al-BattānĪ’s ZĪj was published with translation and analysis (both in Latin) by Nallino, C. A., al-BattānĪ sive Albatenii Opus Astronomicum (Publicazioni del Reale Osservatorio di Brera in Milano, XL), 3 Vols. (Milan/Rome, 1899–1907Google Scholar [reprinted in Frankfurt: Minerva G.m.b.H., 1969]). On the 12th-century compendium known as the Toledan Tables which is, in fact, a hodge-podge of tables from the Zijes of al-KhwārizmiĪ and al-BattānĪ, see Toomer, G. J., “A Survey of the Toledan Tables,” Osiris, 15 (1968), pp. 5–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12 For a list of over 120 Islamic zijes and a brief analysis of the most important extant zĪjes, as well as an account of all the material which is standard in zĪjes, see Kennedy, E. S., “A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 46 (1956), pp. 123–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar On the various categories of Islamic tables not found in zĪjes and not discussed by Kennedy, such as sexagesimal multiplication tables, tables for reckoning time by day and night and for regulating the times of prayer, tables of coordinates for drawing curves on sundials, astrolabes and quadrants, auxiliary tables for solving problems in spherical astronomy, and double-argument tables of the lunar, solar and planetary equations, see King, D. A., “On the Astronomical Tables of the Islamic Middle Ages,” Studia Copernicana, 13 (1975), pp. 37–56.Google Scholar

13 al-BĪrūnĪ, , al-Qānūn al-Mas^cūdĪ, 3 Vols. (Hyderabad: Osmania Oriental Publications, 1954–56).Google Scholar On this work see Kennedy, E. S., “Al-BĪrūnĪ’s Masudic Canon,” al-Abhāth, 23 (1971), pp. 59–87.Google Scholar

The introduction to the ZĪj of Ibṅ al-Banna’ of Marrakesh was published with translation, but without the tables, in Vernet, J., Contribución al Estudio de la Labor Astronómica de Ibn al-Bannā’ (Tetuan: Editora Marro qul, 1952).Google Scholar Likewise, the introduction to the ZĪj of Ulugh Beg, but not the tables, was published with translation in Sédillot, L. A., Prolégomènes des Tables Astronomiques d’Oloug-Beg, 2 Vols. (Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, 1853).Google Scholar

The first few chapters of the introduction to the ḤākimĪ ZĪj of lbn Yūnus, including the accounts of over 100 observations of eclipses and conjunctions, were published by Perceval, Caussin de as “Le livre de la grande table Hakémite, observée par le Sheikh … ebn lounis ….” Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale, 7 (1804), pp. 16–240.Google Scholar The spherical astronomy in this work is analyzed in King, D. A., Spherical Astronomy in Medieval Islam: The ḤākimĪ ZĪj of Ibn Yūnus (N.Y.: State University of New York Press [to appear]).Google Scholar

14 For information on various early Ottoman taqwĪms, some of which are now published, see Ménage, V. L., “The Beginnings of Ottoman Historiography,” in Lewis, B. and Holt, P. M., eds., Historians of the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), esp. p. 170.Google Scholar On some fragments of various Egyptian taqwĪms from the Cairo Geniza, see the study of B. R. Goldstein and D. Pingree, mentioned in Note 29 below.

15 On the use of the electronic computer in the analysis and recomputation of medieval Islamic tables, see Gingerich, O., “Applications of High-Speed Computers to the History of Astronomy,” Vistas in Astronomy, 9 (1967), pp. 229–36;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Kennedy, E. S., “The Digital Computer and the History of the Exact Sciences,” Centaurus, 12 (1967), pp. 107–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

The data processing of geographical data from Islamic astronomical sources is described in Kennedy, E. S. and Haddad, F., “Geographical Tables of Medieval Islam,” al-Abḥāth, 24 (1971), pp. 87–102.Google Scholar [Copies of the output are available at the American Research Center in Egypt, the Institute for the History of Arabic Science in Aleppo, the Department of History of Science and Medicine at Yale University, the Department of History of Mathematics at Brown University, and the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Literatures at New York University.]

16 al-ṢūfĪ’s Ṣuwar al-kawākib was published in Hyderabad: Osmania Oriental Publications, 1954. See also Wellesz, E., “An Islamic Book of Constellations,” Bodleian Picture Book No. 13 (1965).Google Scholar

17 See Tanindi, Z., “An Illustrated Astrological Work of the Period of Iskandar Sultan,” Proceedings of the VIIth International Congress of Persian Art and Archaeology (Munich, 1976).Google Scholar

18 On Arabic star names, see Kunitzsch, , Untersuchungen zur Sternnomenklatur der Araber (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1961)Google Scholar and the various later publications of the same author, including the article, “al-ṢūfĪ,” in DSB.

19 On the kutub al-hay’a see, for example, Livingston, J., “NaṣĪr al-DĪn al-TūsĪ’s al-Tadhkira: A Category of Islamic Astronomical Literature”, Centaurus, 17 (1972–73), pp. 260–75;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Goldstein, B. R., al-BiṭrūjĪ: On the Principles of Astronomy, 2 Vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).Google Scholar

On the ShĪrāzĪ/ṬūsĪ/lbn al-Shāṭir tradition, see various articles reprinted in Kennedy, E. S. and Ghanem, I., The Life and Work of Ibn al-Shātir: An Arab Astronomer of the Fourteenth Century (Aleppo: Institute for the History of Arabic Science, 1976);Google Scholar and also Hartner, W., “The Islamic Astronomical Background to Nicholas Copernicus,” Studia Copernicana, 13 (1975), pp. 7–16, and the references there cited.Google Scholar

On al-^cUrḍĪ’s contribution, see Saliba, G., “A Damascene Astronomer was the First to Offer an Alternative to Ptolemy’s Astronomy,” Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1979).Google Scholar

On Jābir, see the article in DSB by Lorch, R.; and by the same author the paper, “The Origins of Jābir ibn Aflah’s Mathematics,” Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1979).Google Scholar

20 On the determination of the prayer times in Islam, see Frank, J. and Wiedemann, E., “Die Gebetszeiten im Islam,” Sitzungsberichte der phys.-med. Sozietät zu Erlangen, 58 (1926), pp. 1–32Google Scholar [reprinted in Wiedemann, E., Aufsätze zur arabischen Wissenschaftsgeschichte], 2 Vols. (Hildesheim: G. Olms, 1970), II, pp. 757–88;Google Scholar and King, D. A., “Astronomical Timekeeping (^cilm al-mĪqāat] in Medieval Islam,” Actes du XXIX^e Congrès International des Orientalistes (Paris, 1973), 11:2, pp. 86–90.Google Scholar See also Notes 7 and 21. On the religious motivation behind this activity, see the articles, “MĪkāt” and “Ṣalāi” in EI₁, by A. J. Wenanck.

21 See King, D. A., Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping in Medieval Islam [to appear]; and idem,, “On the Role of the Muwaqqit in Medieval Islamic Society,” Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1979)Google Scholar. On the corpuses of tables that were used for timekeeping and for regulating the prayer times m medieval Cairo, Damascus and Istanbul, see King, D. A., “Ibn Yūnus’ Very Useful Tables for Reckoning Time by the Sun,” Archive for History of Exact Science, 10 (1973), pp. 342–394;CrossRefGoogle Scholar“Astronomical Timekeeping in Fourteenth-Century Syria,” Proceedings of the First International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1976), Vol. II, pp. 75–84; and “Astronomical Timekeeping in Ottoman Turkey,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Observatory in Islam (Istanbul, 1977).Google Scholar See also Note 7 above.

22 On qibla determinations in medieval Islam, see my article “Ḳibla” in EI₂, and the references there cited. See also Note 7 above.

23 See, for example, Janjanian, M. and Kennedy, E. S., “The Crescent Visibility Table in al-KhwārizmiĪ’s ZĪj,” Centaurus, 11 (1965), pp. 73–78.Google Scholar

24 A useful study is Renaud, H. P. J., “Sur les lunes du Ramadan,” Hespéris, 32 (1945), pp. 51–68, but there is more to be written on this subject.Google Scholar

25 A valuable introduction to the subject of Islamic astronomical instruments is contained in Maddison, F. and Turner, A., Catalogue of an Exhibition “Science and Technology in Islam” Held at the Science Museum, London, April-August 1976, in Association with the Festival of Islam, unfortunately still unpublished.Google Scholar

On the astrolabe in Islam, see Hartner’s, W. article “Asṭurlāb in EI₂: and L. A. Mayer’s Islamic Astrolabists and Their Works (Geneva: Ernst Kundig, 1956; see also Note 26 below).Google Scholar On the quadrant in Islam, see Schmalzl, P., Zur Geschichte des Quadranten bei den Arabern (Munich: Salesianische Offizin, 1929),Google Scholar now very much out of date. On Islamic sundial theory, see Schoy, C., Gnomonik der Araber, in Bassermann-Jordan, E. von, ed., Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Uhren, Band IF (Berlin/Leipzig: Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger, 1923), now also outof date.Google Scholar

On the treatise of al-MarrākushĪ, see Sédillot, J. J., Traité des Instruments Astronomiques des Arabes, 2 Vols (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1834–35);Google Scholar this does not contain the part of al-MarrākushĪ’s treatise dealing with instruments other than sundials; and Sédillot, L. A., “Mémoire sur les instruments astronomiques des arabes,” Mémoires presentés … â l’Académie Royale …de l’Institut de France, 1 Ser., Vol. 1 (1844).Google Scholar

26 A. Brieux and Maddison, F., Répertoire des Facteurs d’Astrolabes et de leurs Oeuvres, 1 (Islam), [to appear].Google Scholar

27 On Ibn al-Shāṭir’s instrument and his treatise describing it, see Janin, L. and King, D. A., “Ibn al-Shāṭir’s Ṣandūq al-YawāqĪt: An Astronomical Compendium,” Journal for the History of Arabic Science, 1 (1977), pp. 187–256.Google Scholar

Cf. Sayili, A. M., The Institutions of Science and Learning in the Moslem World, unpublished doctoral dissertation. Harvard University, 1941; and idem., The Observatory in Islam, publications of the Turkish Historical Society, Ser. VII, No. 38 (1960).Google Scholar On the relationship between the instruments in late Islamic and early European observatories, see Tekeli, S., “Nasirüddin, Takiyüddin ve Tycho Brahe’ pin Rasat Aletlerinin Mukayesesi,” Ankara Universitesi DU ve Tarih-Čografya Fakültesi Dergesi, 16 (1958), pp. 301–393.Google Scholar

28 For general works on Islamic astrology, see Note 1 above.

29 These new studies are Kennedy, E. S. and Pingree, D., The Astrological History of Mashā’allāh (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971);CrossRefGoogle ScholarSaliba, G, “The Astrologers in Medieval Islamic Society,” Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1979);Google ScholarElwell-Sutton, L. P., The Horoscope of Asadullāh MĪrza: A Specimen of Nineteenth-Century Persian Astrology (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977);Google Scholar and Goldstein, B. and Pingree, D., “Astrological Almanacs from the Cairo Geniza,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 38 (1979), pp. 153–75, and forthcoming issues.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

30 For general works on Islamic mathematics, see Notei above. On the arithmetic of inheritance in Islam, see the articles “MĪrāth” in EI₁ and “Farā’ iḍ” in EI₂, and the references there cited; and especially Gandz, S., “The Algebra of Inheritance,” Osiris, 5 (1938), pp. 319–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

On arithmetic, see A. I. Sabra’s article, “^cllm al-ḥisāb” in EI₂; and also the articles, “Ḥisab al-^caḳd” and “Ḥisāb al-ghubar” by Ch. Pellat and M. Souissi, EI₂. On algebra see Hartner’s “Djabr wa-muḳābala,” EI₂; on geometry see forthcoming “^cllm al-handasa,” EI₂ supp.

31 See, for example, Saidan, A., “Arithmetic Amongst the Arabs,” [in Arabic], ^cĀlam al-fikr, 2 (1971), pp. 161–94;Google Scholar and Anbouba, A., “L’algèbre arabe aux IX^e et X^e siècles: Aperçu général,” Journal for the History of Arabie Science, 2 (1978), pp. 66–100.Google Scholar

32 See, for example, the references cited in the articles, “al-Samaw’al” and “al-Ṭusi, Sharaf al-DĪn,” by A. Anbouba in DSB; and in the article “al-Uqlidisi” in DSB, by A. Saidan.

33 See, for example, Anbouba, A., “Construction de I’ heptagone régulier par les Arabes au 4^e siècle H.,” Journal for the History of Arabie Science, 2 (1978), pp. 264–69;Google Scholar and Hogendijk, J., “On the Trisection of an Angle and the Construction of a Regular Nonagon …in Medieval Islamic Geometry,” Proceedings of the Second International Symposium for the History of Arabic Science (Aleppo, 1979).Google Scholar

34 On al-BārūnĪ, see Kennedy’s, E. S. article in DSB and the bibliography there cited, to which add Kennedy, E. S., A Commentary on BĪrūnĪ’s TaḥdĪd (Nihāyāt) al-Amākin (Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, 1973; idem.Google Scholar, The Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows by … al-BĪrūnĪ, 2 Vols. (Aleppo: Institute for the History of Arabic Science, 1976); and idem., “al-BĪrūnĪ’s Maqalid ^cilm al-hay’ a,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 30 (1971), pp. 308–314.