1 “Moral” is used herein in the broadest sense of personal moral code, religious belief, and sociological and philosophical views and in contrast to “legal.”

2 Cf. United States v. Nugent, 346 U. S. 1, rehearing denied, 346 U. S. 853.

3 The term “Nuremberg” is used generically in this paper to include the trials in Japan by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. For citations to the pertinent source materials on these trials, see 11 Whiteman's Digest of International Law 890, 930, 936, 944, 970, 997, in particular, and Ch. XXXV, passim.

4 Cf. United States v. Mitchell, 246 F. Supp. 874, 897 (D.C. Conn.); United States v. Sisson, Criminal No. 68–237-W, D.C. Mass., April 1, 1969; United States v. Sisson, 294 F. Supp. 511 (D.C. Mass., 1968).

5 50 U.S.C. App. 453.

6 Exec. Agreement Series, No. 472, 59 Stat. 1546–1552; 39 A.J.I.L. Supp. 258 (1945).

7 In this respect, the relevant articles of the Charter are 6, 9, 10, and 11.

8 46 Stat. 2343; 22 A.J.I.L. Supp. 171 (1928).

9 The Tribunal found the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the Gestapo, and the S.S. to be criminal organizations. The 8.A. was not found criminal. The Eeich Cabinet and the General Staff and High Command were found not to be “organizations.”

10 Thus, persons employed by the Gestapo for purely clerical, stenographic, janitorial or similar unofficial tasks were not held criminal on this score.

11 Res. 95(1), Dec. 11, 1946. For a discussion of the effect of General Assembly resolutions, see Falk, “On the Quasi-Legislative Competence of the General Assembly,” 60 A.J.I.L. 782 (1966).

12 Reid v. Covert, 354 U. S. 1, 18; 51 A.J.I.L. 783 (1957).

13 Art. I, See. 8, CI. 10.

14 See, e.g., 18 U.S.C. 1651, 1653, re piraey.

15 Cf. Arts. 21 and 18 of U.C.M.J. (10 U.S.C. 821 and 818); Madsen v. Kinsella, 343 U. S. 341, 346–355, 46 A.J.I.L. 556 (1952).

16 Cf. Ex parte Quirin, 317 U. S. 1; 37 A.J.I.L. 152 (1943); Army Field Manual FM 27–10, pp. 178–183 (July, 1956).

17 See Levie, “Penal Sanctions for Maltreatment of Prisoners of War,” 56 A.J.I.L. 433 (1962).

18 See. 6(j) (50 U.S.C. App. 456(j)); see United States v. Seeger, 380 U. S. 163.

19 United States v. Kurki, 255 F. Supp. 161 (D.C. Wis.), certiorari denied, 390 U. S. 926.

20 Baker v. Carr, 369 U. S. 186, 217.

21 Cf. Luftig v. McNamara, 373 F. 2d 664, 665–666 (C.A.D.C.), certiorari denied, sub. nom., Mora v. McNamara, 389 U. S. 934. In this connection, it is not without significance that, in the international sphere, competence to determine the question of aggression is vested by the United Nations Charter in a political body, the Security Council.

22 “This Court has regularly and uniformly recognized the supremacy of the Constitution over a treaty.” Beid v. Covert, loc. cit. above, at 17.

28 Cf. Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino, 376 U. S. 398; 58 A.J.I.L. 779 (1964).

24 Cf. Kiehter v. United States, 181 F. 2d 591, certiorari denied, 340 U. S. 892. Moreover, a registrant must exhaust his administrative remedies before he can offer his claim of conscientious objection as a defense to a prosecution for refusal to be inducted.

25 Cf. United States v. Bolton, 192 F. 2d 805 (C.A. 2).

26 Cf. United States v. Mitchell, 369 F. 2d 323, 324 (C.A. 2), certiorari denied, 386 U. S. 972.

27 Cf. Flast v. Cohen, 88 S. Ct. 1942, 1953.

28 Cf. Ingram v. United States, 360 U. S. 672, 678; Direct Sales Co. v. United States, 319 U. S. 703, 713.

29 10 U.S.C. 892.

30 Department of the Army Field Manual FM 27–10, pp. 182–183 (July, 1956); Manual for Courts-Martial United States, 1968, par. 216d.

31 Cf. United States v. Berrigan, 283 F. Supp. 336 (D. Md.); 63 A.J.I.L. 147 (1969).

32 Hamilton v. Regents, 293 U. S. 245, 268 (Cardozo, J., concurring).