Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-rvbq7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-08T06:58:04.523Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Holistic Darwinism: The new evolutionary paradigm and some implications for political science

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Peter A. Corning
Peter A. Corning*
Affiliation:
Institute for the Study of Complex Systems 3501 Beaverton Valley Road Friday Harbor, Washington 98250 USA PA Corning@complexsystems.org
Get access

Abstract

Holistic Darwinism is a candidate name for a major paradigm shift that is currently underway in evolutionary biology and related disciplines. Important developments include (1) a growing appreciation for the fact that evolution is a multilevel process, from genes to ecosystems, and that interdependent coevolution is a ubiquitous phenomenon in nature; (2) a revitalization of group selection theory, which was banned (prematurely) from evolutionary biology over 30 years ago (groups may in fact be important evolutionary units); (3) a growing respect for the fact that the genome is not a “bean bag” (in biologist Ernst Mayr's caricature), much less a gladiatorial arena for competing selfish genes, but a complex, interdependent, cooperating system; (4) an increased recognition that symbiosis is an important phenomenon in nature and that symbiogenesis is a major source of innovation in evolution; (5) an array of new, more advanced game theory models, which support the growing evidence that cooperation is commonplace in nature and not a rare exception; (6) new research and theoretical work that stresses the role of nurture in evolution, including developmental processes, phenotypic plasticity, social information transfer (culture), and especially the role of behavioral innovations as pacemakers of evolutionary change (e.g., niche construction theory, which is concerned with the active role of organisms in shaping the evolutionary process, and gene-culture coevolution theory, which relates especially to the dynamics of human evolution); (7) and, not least, a broad effort to account for the evolution of biological complexity — from major transition theory to the “Synergism Hypothesis.” Here I will briefly review these developments and will present a case for the proposition that this paradigm shift has profound implications for the social sciences, including specifically political theory, economic theory, and political science as a discipline. Interdependent superorganisms, it turns out, have played a major role in evolution — from eukaryotes to complex human societies.

Keywords

Evolutionsynergycomplexitygroup selectionsuperorganism
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics and the Life Sciences , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , March 2008 , pp. 22 - 54
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Darwin, C. R.. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: A. L. Burt, 1874/1871).Google Scholar
2. Ibid., p. 147.Google Scholar
3. Spencer, H.. The Principles of Sociology , 3 vols., 3rd ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1897/1874–1882).Google Scholar
4. Wright, S.. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations: A Treatise , 4 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968–1978).Google Scholar
5. Mayr, E.. Animal Species and Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6. Mayr, E.. Evolution and the Diversity of Life: Selected Essays (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).Google Scholar
7. Gould, S. J.. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap (Harvard University Press), 2002).Google Scholar
8. Wheeler, W. M.. “Emergent evolution of the social,” in Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Philosophy , Brightman, E. S., ed. (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927).Google Scholar
9. Wheeler, W. M.. Emergent Evolution and the Social (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1927).Google Scholar
10. Wheeler, W. M.. The Social Insects: Their Origin and Evolution (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1928).Google Scholar
11. Wynne-Edwards, V. C.. Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behaviour (New York: Hafner, 1962).Google Scholar
12. Wynne-Edwards, V. C.. “Intergroup selection in the evolution of social systems.” Nature , 1963, 200:623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13. Hamilton, W. D.. “The genetical evolution of social behavior, I.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 1964, 7:1–16.Google Scholar
14. Hamilton, W. D.. “The genetical evolution of social behavior, II.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 1964, 7:17–52.Google Scholar
15. Williams, G. C.. Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966).Google Scholar
16. Ibid., p. 8.Google Scholar
17. Williams, G. C.. Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18. Wilson, E. O.. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).Google Scholar
19. Ibid. Google Scholar
20. Ibid., p. 3.Google Scholar
21. Trivers, R. L.. “The evolution of reciprocal altruism.” Quarterly Review of Biology , 1971, 46:35–57.Google Scholar
22. Wilson, E. O., Sociobiology , pp. 106–129 (see note 18).Google Scholar
23. Dawkins, R.. The Selfish Gene , 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989/1976), p. 2.Google Scholar
24. Wilson, D. S.. “A general theory of group selection.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 1975, 72:143–146.Google Scholar
25. Wilson, D. S.. The Natural Selection of Populations and Communities (Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1980).Google Scholar
26. Wilson, D. S. and Sober, E.. “Reviving the superorganism.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 1989, 136:337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27. Wilson, D. S. and Sober, E.. “Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 1994, 17:585–608.Google Scholar
28. Sober, E. and Wilson, D. S.. Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
29. Matessi, C. and Jayakar, S. D.. “Conditions for the evolution of altruism under Darwinian selection.” Theoretical Population Biology , 1976, 9:360–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30. Wade, M. J.. “An experimental study of group selection.” Evolution , 1977, 31:134–153.Google Scholar
31. Wade, M. J.. “Soft selection, hard selection, kin selection, and group selection.” The American Naturalist , 1985, 125(1):61–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32. Dugatkin, L. A., Mesterton-Gibbons, M., and Houston, A. I.. “Beyond the prisoner's dilemma: Towards models to discriminate among mechanisms of cooperation in nature.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution , 1992, 7:202–205.Google Scholar
33. Maynard Smith, J.. “The evolution of social behavior —a classification of models,” in Current Problems in Sociobiology , King's College Sociobiology Group, ed. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 28–44.Google Scholar
34. Maynard Smith, J.. “Game theory and the evolution of behaviour.” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 1984, 7:95–125.Google Scholar
35. Maynard Smith, J.. Evolutionary Genetics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
36. Axelrod, R. and Hamilton, W.. “The evolution of cooperation.” Science , 1981, 211:1390.Google Scholar
37. Axelrod, R.. The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).Google Scholar
38. Binmore, K.. Game Theory and the Social Contract: Volume I: Playing Fair (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994).Google Scholar
39. Binmore, K.. Game Theory and the Social Contract: Volume II: Just Playing (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).Google Scholar
40. Sigmund, K.. Games of Life: Explorations in Ecology, Evolution, and Behaviour (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar
41. Gintis, H.. Game Theory Evolving: A Problem-Centered Introduction to Modeling Strategic Behavior (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
42. Stephens, D. W., McLinn, C. M., and Stevens, J. R.. “Discounting and reciprocity in an iterated prisoner's dilemma.” Science , 2002, 298:2216–2218.Google Scholar
43. Sigmund, K., Fehr, E., and Nowak, M. A.. “The economics of fair play.” Scientific American , 2002, 286(1):83–87.Google Scholar
44. Bowles, S. and Hopfensitz, A.. “The co-evolution of individual behaviors and social institutions.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 2003, 223:135–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45. Corning, P. A.. The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983).Google Scholar
46. Corning, P. A.. Nature's Magic: Synergy in Evolution and the Fate of Humankind (New York/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
47. Corning, P. A.. Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).Google Scholar
48. Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E.. The Major Transitions in Evolution (Oxford: Freeman Press, 1995).Google Scholar
49. Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E.. The Origins of Life: From the Birth of Life to the Origin of Language (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
50. Dugatkin, L. A. and Reeve, H. K.. “Behavioral ecology and levels of selection: Dissolving the group selection controversy.” Advances in the Study of Behavior , 1994, 23:101–133.Google Scholar
51. Dugatkin, L. A. and Mesterton-Gibbons, M.. “Cooperation among unrelated individuals: Reciprocal altruism, by-product mutualism and group selection in fishes.” BioSystems , 1996, 37:19–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52. Wilson, D. S. and Dugatkin, L. A.. “Group selection and assortative interactions.” The American Naturalist , 1997, 149:336–351.Google Scholar
53. Dawkins, , The Selfish Gene , pp. x–xi (see note 23).Google Scholar
54. Corning, P. A.. “The co-operative gene: On the role of synergy in evolution.” Evolutionary Theory , 1996, 11:183–207.Google Scholar
55. Little, P.. “The genome directory: Navigational progress.” Nature , 1995, 377:288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56. Dawkins, R.. The Blind Watchmaker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987/1986).Google Scholar
57. Ibid., pp. 170, 171.Google Scholar
58. Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E.. “The origin of chromosomes I. Selection for linkage.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 1993, 164:437–446.Google Scholar
59. Shapiro, J. A.. “Bacteria as multicellular organisms.” Scientific American , 1988, 258(6):82–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60. Shapiro, J. A. and Dworkin, M., eds. Bacteria as Multicellular Organisms (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).Google Scholar
61. Margulis, L.. Symbiosis in Cell Evolution , 2nd ed. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993).Google Scholar
62. Bloom, H.. “A history of the global brain: Creative nets in the Pre-Cambrian age.” ASCAP (Across Species Comparisons and Psychopathology Society), 1997, 10(3):7–11.Google Scholar
63. Margulis, , Symbiosis in Cell Evolution (see note 61).Google Scholar
64. Hull, D. L.. “Individuality and selection.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics , 1980, 11:311–332.Google Scholar
65. Boucher, D. H., ed. The Biology of Mutualism: Ecology and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).Google Scholar
66. Brown, J. L.. “Cooperation — a biologists' dilemma.” Advances in the Study of Behavior , 1983, 13:1–37.Google Scholar
67. Ibid., p. 29.Google Scholar
68. Seger, J.. “Cooperation and conflict in social insects,” in Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach , 2nd ed., Krebs, J. R. and Davis, N. B., eds. (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1991), pp. 338–373.Google Scholar
69. Maynard Smith, Evolutionary Genetics (see note 35).Google Scholar
70. Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991).Google Scholar
71. Margulis, L. and Schwartz, K. V.. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1982).Google Scholar
72. Bermudes, D. and Margulis, L.. “Symbiont acquisition as neoseme: Origin of species and higher taxa.” Symbiosis , 1987, 4:185–198.Google Scholar
73. Smith, D. C. and Douglas, A. E.. The Biology of Symbiosis (Baltimore, MD: Edward Arnold, 1987).Google Scholar
74. Lewis, D. H. “Mutualistic symbioses in the origin and evolution of land plants,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 288–300.Google Scholar
75. Pirozynski, K. A. and Malloch, D. W.. “The origins of land plants: A matter of mycotrophism.” Biosystems , 1975, 6:153–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76. Atsatt, P. R.. “Are vascular plants inside-out lichens?” Ecology , 1988, 69:17–23.Google Scholar
77. Atsatt, P. R.. “Fungi and the origin of land plants,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 301–305.Google Scholar
78. Kendrick, B.. “Fungal symbioses and evolutionary innovations,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 249–261.Google Scholar
79. Price, P. W.. “The web of life: Development over 3.8 billion years of trophic relationships,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 262–272.Google Scholar
80. Vetter, R. D.. “Symbiosis and the evolution of novel trophic strategies: Thiotrophic organisms at hydrothermal vents,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 219–245.Google Scholar
81. Sonea, S.. “Bacterial evolution without speciation,” in Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation , Margulis, L. and Fester, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), pp. 95–105.Google Scholar
82. Shapiro, , “Bacteria as multicellular organisms” (see note 59).Google Scholar
83. Shapiro, and Dworkin, , eds. Bacteria as Multicellular Organisms (see note 60).Google Scholar
84. Corning, , “The co-operative gene” (see note 54).Google Scholar
85. Goodnight, C. and Stevens, L.. “Experimental studies of group selection: What they tell us about group selection in nature.” Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America , 1997, 77 (3 Suppl. Part 2):168.Google Scholar
86. Wilkinson, G. S.. “Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat.” Nature , 1984, 308:181–184.Google Scholar
87. Wilkinson, G. S.. “Reciprocal altruism in bats and other mammals.” Ethology and Sociobiology , 1988, 9:85–100.Google Scholar
88. Wilkinson, G. S.. “Food sharing in vampire bats.” Scientific American , 1990, 262(2):76–82.Google Scholar
89. Trivers, , “Evolution of reciprocal altruism” (see note 21).Google Scholar
90. Trivers, R. L.. Social Evolution (Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1985).Google Scholar
91. Wilkinson, , “Food sharing in vampire bats,” p. 82 (see note 88).Google Scholar
92. Olendorf, R., Getty, T., and Scribner, K.. “Cooperative nest defence in red-winged blackbirds: Reciprocal altruism, kinship or by-product mutualism?” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , 2004, 271:177–182.Google Scholar
93. Corning, , “The co-operative gene” (see note 54).Google Scholar
94. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
95. Maynard Smith and Szathmáry. Major Transitions in Evolution (see note 48).Google Scholar
96. Emlen, S. T.. “Living with relatives: Lessons from avian family systems.” IBIS , 1996, 138:87–100.Google Scholar
97. Axelrod, and Hamilton, , “The evolution of cooperation” (see note 36).Google Scholar
98. Smith, Maynard and Szathmáry, . Major Transitions in Evolution (see note 48).Google Scholar
99. Ibid., p. 261.Google Scholar
100. Peck, J. R.. “Friendship and the evolution of co-operation in honey bee colonies.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 1993, 162:195–228.Google Scholar
101. Ibid., p. 195.Google Scholar
102. Dugatkin, et al. “Beyond the prisoner's dilemma” (see note 32).Google Scholar
103. Brembs, B.. “Chaos, cheating and cooperation: Potential solutions to the prisoner's dilemma.” Oikos , 1996, 76:14–24.Google Scholar
104. Binmore, K.. “Reciprocity and the social contract.” Politics, Philosophy and Economics , 2004, 3(1):5–35.Google Scholar
105. Nowak, M. and Sigmund, K.. “A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the prisoner's dilemma game.” Nature , 1993, 364:56–58.Google Scholar
106. Boyd, R. and Richerson, P. J.. “Punishment allows the evolution of cooperation (or anything else) in sizable groups.” Ethology and Sociobiology , 1992, 13:171–195.Google Scholar
107. Clutton-Brock, T. H. and Parker, G. A.. “Punishment in animal societies.” Nature , 1995, 373:209–216.Google Scholar
108. Frank, S. A.. “Mutual policing and repression of competition in the evolution of cooperative groups.” Nature (London), 1995, 377:520–522.Google Scholar
109. Frank, S. A.. “Policing and group cohesion when resources vary.” Animal Behaviour , 1996, 52:1163–1169.Google Scholar
110. Michod, R. E.. “Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of individuality. II. Conflict mediation.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (B) , 1996, 263:813–822.Google Scholar
111. Fehr, E. and Gächter, S.. “Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiment.” American Economic Review , 2000, 90:980–994.Google Scholar
112. Fehr, E. and Gächter, S.. “Fairness and retaliation: The economics of reciprocity.” journal of Economic Perspectives , 2000, 14:159–181.Google Scholar
113. Fehr, E. and Gächter, S.. “Altruistic punishment in humans.” Nature , 2002, 415:137–140.Google Scholar
114. Gintis, H.. “Strong reciprocity and human sociality.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 2000, 206:169–179.Google Scholar
115. Axelrod, R.. The Complexity of Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).Google Scholar
116. Falk, A., Fehr, E., and Fischbacher, U.. “Driving forces of informal sanctions” (Zurich: University of Zurich, Working Paper Series ISSN 1424–0459, 2001).Google Scholar
117. Henrich, J. and Boyd, R.. “Why people punish defectors.” Journal of Theoretical Biology , 2001, 208:79–89.Google Scholar
118. Bowles, S. and Gintis, H.. “Homo Reciprocans.” Nature , 2002, 415:125–128.Google Scholar
119. Boyd, R., Gintis, H., Bowles, S., and Richerson, P.. “The evolution of altruistic punishment.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 2003, 100(6):3531–3535.Google Scholar
120. Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, R., and Fehr, E.. “Explaining altruistic behavior in humans.” Evolution and Human Behavior , 2003, 24:153–172.Google Scholar
121. Binmore, . “Reciprocity and the social contract” (see note 104).Google Scholar
122. Clutton-Brock, and Parker, . “Punishment in animal societies,” p. 209 (see note 107).Google Scholar
123. Ratnieks, F. L. W. and Visscher, P. K.. “Worker policing in the honey bee.” Nature , 1989, 342:796–797.Google Scholar
124. Sherman, P. W., Jarvis, J. U. M., and Alexander, R. D., eds. The Biology of the Naked Mole-Rat (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991).Google Scholar
125. de Waal, F. B. M.. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
126. Smith, Maynard, “The evolution of social behavior” (see note 33).Google Scholar
127. Maynard Smith, J.. “Models of evolution.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (B) , 1983, 219:315–325.Google Scholar
128. Smith, Maynard, Evolutionary Genetics (see note 35).Google Scholar
129. Michod, . “Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of individuality. II.” (see note 110).Google Scholar
130. Page, R. E. and Robinson, G. E.. “The genetics of division of labour in honey bee colonies.” Advances in Insect Physiology , 1991, 23:118–169.Google Scholar
131. Oldroyd, B. P., Rinderer, T. E., and Buco, S. M.. “Intra-colonial foraging specialism by honey bees (Apix mellifera) (Hymenoptera: Apidae).” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 1992, 30:291–295.Google Scholar
132. Oldroyd, B. P., Rinderer, T. E., Harbo, J. R., and Buco, S. M.. “Effects of intracolonial genetic diversity on honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colony performance.” Annals of the Entomological Society of American , 1992, 85(3):335–343.Google Scholar
133. Fewell, J. H. and Winston, M. L.. “Colony state and regulation of pollen foraging in the honey bee, Apis mellifera L.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 1992, 30:387–393.Google Scholar
134. Guzmán-Novoa, E., Page, R. E., and Gary, N. E.. “Behavioral and life-history components of division of labor in honey bees, (Apis mellifera L.)” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 1994, 34:409–417.Google Scholar
135. Calderone, N. W. and Page, R. E.. “Effects of interactions among genotypically diverse nestmates on task specialization by foraging honey bees (Apis mellifera).” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 1992, 30:219–226.Google Scholar
136. Hoogland, J. L. and Sherman, P. W.. “Advantages and disadvantages of bank swallow (Riparia riparia) coloniality.” Ecological Monographs , 1976, 46:33–58.Google Scholar
137. Scheel, D. and Packer, C.. “Group hunting behaviour of lions: A search for cooperation.” Animal Behaviour , 1991, 41:697–710.Google Scholar
138. Packer, C., Herbst, L., Pusey, A. E., Bygott, J. D., Hanby, J. P., Cairns, S. J., and Mulder, M. B.. “Reproductive success of lions,” in Reproductive Success , Clutton-Brock, T. H., ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).Google Scholar
139. Van Horn, R., Engh, A. L., Scribner, K. T., Funk, S. M., and Holekamp, K. E.. “Behavioral structuring of relatedness in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) suggests direct fitness benefits of clan-level cooperation.” Molecular Ecology , 2004, 13:449–458.Google Scholar
140. Wilson, and Sober, , “Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences” (see note 27).Google Scholar
141. Moritz, R. F. A. and Southwick, E. E.. Bees as Superorganisms: An Evolution and Reality (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992).Google Scholar
142. Sperry, R. W.. “Modified concept of consciousness.” Psychological Review , 1969, 76:532–536.Google Scholar
143. Sperry, R. W.. “In defense of mentalism and emergent interaction.” The journal of Mind and Behavior , 1991, 12(2):221–246.Google Scholar
144. Campbell, D. T.. “Downward causation in hierarchically organized biological systems,” in Studies in the Philosophy of Biology , Dobzhansky, T. and Ayala, F. J., eds. (New York: Macmillan, 1974), pp. 85–90.Google Scholar
145. Margulis, . Symbiosis in Cell Evolution (see note 61).Google Scholar
146. Wilson, E. O.. “The sociogenesis of insect colonies.” Science , 1985, 228:1489–1495.Google Scholar
147. Buss, L. W.. The Evolution of Individuality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987).Google Scholar
148. Smith, D. C.. “The symbiotic condition.” Symbiosis , 1992, 14:3–15.Google Scholar
149. Leigh, E.. “Genes, bees and ecosystems: The evolution of a common interest among individuals.” Tree , 1991, 6:257–262.Google Scholar
150. Dawkins, , The Blind Watchmaker , p. 170, 171 (see note 56).Google Scholar
151. Margulis, , Symbiosis in Cell Evolution (see note 61).Google Scholar
152. Shapiro, , “Bacteria as multicellular organisms” (see note 59).Google Scholar
153. Würsig, B.. “The behavior of baleen whales.” Scientific American , 1988, 258(4):102–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
154. Würsig, B.. “Cetaceans.” Science , 1989, 244:1550–1557.Google Scholar
155. Mann, J., Connor, R. C., Tyack, P. L., and Whitehead, H., eds. Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).Google Scholar
156. Gygax, L.. “Evolution of group size in the dolphins and porpoises: Interspecific consistency of intraspecific patterns.” Behavioral Ecology , 2002, 13(5):583–590.Google Scholar
157. Yurk, H., Barrett-Lennard, L., Ford, J. K. B., and Matkin, C. O.. “Cultural transmission within maternal lineages: Vocal clans in resident killer whales in southern Alaska.” Animal Behaviour , 2002, 63:1103–1119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
158. Whitehead, H. and Rendell, L.. “Movements, habitat use and feeding success of cultural clans of South Pacific sperm whales.” Journal of Animal Ecology , 2004, 73:190–196.Google Scholar
159. Oyama, S.. Evolution's Eye: A Systems View of the Biology-Culture Divide (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
160. Rollo, C. D.. Phenotypes: Their Epigenetics, Ecology and Evolution (New York: Chapman and Hall, 1995).Google Scholar
161. Pigliucci, M.. Phenotypic Plasticity: Beyond Nature and Nurture (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).Google Scholar
162. West-Eberhard, M. J.. Developmental Plasticity and Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
163. Gould, , Structure of Evolutionary Theory (see note 7).Google Scholar
164. de Lamarck, J. B.. Zoological Philosophy , translated by Elliot, H. (New York: Hafner, 1963/1809).Google Scholar
165. Simpson, G. G.. “The Baldwin effect.” Evolution , 1953, 2:110–117.Google Scholar
166. Roe, A. and Simpson, G. G., eds. Behavior and Evolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1958).Google Scholar
167. Mayr, E.. “The emergence of evolutionary novelties,” in Evolution after Darwin , Vol. 1, Tax, S., ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).Google Scholar
168. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
169. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
170. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
171. Bateson, P. P. G.. “The active role of behavior in evolution,” in Evolutionary Processes and Metaphors , Ho, M. W. and Fox, S. W., eds. (New York: Wiley, 1988), pp. 191–207.Google Scholar
172. Plotkin, H. C., ed. The Role of Behavior in Evolution (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988).Google Scholar
173. Avital, E. and Jablonka, E.. “Social learning and the evolution of behaviour.” Animal Behaviour , 1994, 48:1195–1199.Google Scholar
174. Avital, E. and Jablonka, E.. Animal Traditions: Behavioural Inheritance in Evolution (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
175. Deacon, T. W.. The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997).Google Scholar
176. Weber, B. H. and Depew, D. J., eds. Evolution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsidered (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).Google Scholar
177. Mayr, , “Emergence of evolutionary novelties,” (see note 167).Google Scholar
178. Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, F. J., and Feldman, M. W.. “Cultural niche construction and human evolution.” Journal of Evolutionary Biology , 2001, 14:22–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
179. Odling-Smee, F. J., Laland, K. N., and Feldman, M. W.. Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
180. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. and Feldman, M. W.. Cultural Transmission and Evolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).Google Scholar
181. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
182. Boyd, R. and Richerson, P. J.. Culture and the Evolutionary Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).Google Scholar
183. Durham, W. H.. Coevolution: Genes, Culture and Human Diversity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991).Google Scholar
184. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
185. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
186. Hammerstein, P., ed. Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).Google Scholar
187. Richerson, P. J. and Boyd, R.. The Nature of Cultures (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004).Google Scholar
188. Dawkins, , The Selfish Gene , pp. x–xi (see note 23).Google Scholar
189. Williams, , Adaptation and Natural Selection , p. 220 (see note 15).Google Scholar
190. Ibid., p. 217–218.Google Scholar
191. Leigh, E.. Adaptation and Diversity (San Francisco, CA: Freeman, Cooper and Co., 1971).Google Scholar
192. Leigh, E.. “How does selection reconcile individual advantage with the good of the group.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 1977, 74:4542–4546.Google Scholar
193. Leigh, E.. “When does the good of the group override the advantage of the individual?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 1983, 80:2985–2989.Google Scholar
194. Leigh, , “Genes, bees and ecosystems” (see note 149).Google Scholar
195. Michod, , “Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of individuality. II.” (see note 110).Google Scholar
196. Michod, R. E.. “Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of individuality. I. Multilevel selection of the organism.” American Naturalist , 1997, 149:607–645.Google Scholar
197. Michod, R. E.. Darwinian Dynamics, Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
198. Frank, S. A.. “Perspective: Repression of competition and the evolution of cooperation.” Evolution , 2003, 57(4): 693–705.Google Scholar
199. Rainey, P. B. and Rainey, K.. “Evolution of cooperation and conflict in experimental bacterial populations.” Nature , 2003, 425:72–74.Google Scholar
200. Smith, A.. The Wealth of Nations , 2 vols. (London: Dent, 1964/1776).Google Scholar
201. Smith, A.. The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976/1759).Google Scholar
202. Ibid., pp. 86, 88–89, 340–341.Google Scholar
203. Jeon, K. W.. “Development of cellular dependence in infective organisms: Micurgical studies in amoebas.” Science , 1972, 176:1122–1123.Google Scholar
204. Jeon, K. W.. “Integration of bacterial endosymbionts in amoebae.” International Review of Cytology , 1983, Supplement 14:29–47.Google Scholar
205. Jeon, K. W.. “Macromolecules involved in the amoeba-bacteria symbiosis.” Journal of Protozoology , 1992, 39:199–204.Google Scholar
206. Margulis, , Symbiosis in Cell Evolution (see note 61).Google Scholar
207. Corning, , The Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
208. Corning, P. A.. “Synergy, cybernetics and the evolution of politics.” International Political Science Review , 1996, 17:91–119.Google Scholar
209. Somit, A., ed. Biology and Politics: Recent Explorations (The Hague/Paris: Mouton, 1976).Google Scholar
210. Willhoite, F. H. Sr. “Primates and political authority: A biobehavioral perspective.” The American Political Science Review , 1976, 70:1110–1126.Google Scholar
211. Wiegele, T. C.. Biopolitics: Search for a More Human Political Science (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979).Google Scholar
212. Somit, A., Richardson, W. D., Peterson, S. A., and Goldfischer, D., eds. The Literature of Biopolitics (revised) (Dekalb, IL: The Center for Biopolitical Research, 1980).Google Scholar
213. de Waal, F.. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes (New York: Harper and Row, 1982).Google Scholar
214. Schubert, G.. Evolutionary Politics (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
215. Masters, R. D.. The Nature of Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
216. Schubert, G. and Masters, R., eds. Primate Politics (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991).Google Scholar
217. Vanhanen, T.. On the Evolutionary Roots of Politics (New Delhi: Sterling, 1992).Google Scholar
218. Johnson, G. R.. “The evolutionary origins of government and politics,” in Human Nature and Politics , Somit, A. and Losco, J., eds. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1995), pp. 243–305.Google Scholar
219. Koestler, A.. The Ghost in the Machine (New York: Macmillan, 1967).Google Scholar
220. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
221. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
222. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
223. Brandon, R. N. and Burian, R. M., eds. Genes, Organisms, Populations: Controversies over the Units of Selection (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984).Google Scholar
224. Eldredge, N. and Salthe, S. N.. “Hierarchy and evolution,” in Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology, Volume 1 , Dawkins, R. and Ridley, M., eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 184–208.Google Scholar
225. Salthe, S. N.. Evolving Hierarchical Systems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).Google Scholar
226. Eldredge, N.. Unfinished Synthesis: Biological Hierarchies and Modern Evolutionary Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).Google Scholar
227. Eldredge, N.. Reinventing Darwin (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995).Google Scholar
228. Buss, , Evolution of Individuality (see note 147).Google Scholar
229. Grene, M.. “Hierarchies in biology.” American Scientist , 1987, 75:504–610.Google Scholar
230. Wilson, and Sober, , “Reintroducing group selection” (see note 27).Google Scholar
231. Smith, Maynard and Szathmáry, , Major Transitions in Evolution (see note 48).Google Scholar
232. Michod, , “Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of individuality. II.” (see note 110).Google Scholar
233. Sober, and Wilson, , Unto Others (see note 28).Google Scholar
234. Gould, , Structure of Evolutionary Theory (see note 7).Google Scholar
235. Hölldobler, B. and Wilson, E. O.. The Ants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).Google Scholar
236. Rissing, S. W. and Pollack, G. B. “An experimental analysis of pleometrotic advantage in the desert seed-harvester ant Messor pergandei (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).” Insect Society , 1991, 38:205–211.Google Scholar
237. Packer, C. and Ruttan, L.. “The evolution of cooperative hunting.” The American Naturalist , 1988, 132(2):159–198.Google Scholar
238. Le Boeuf, B. J.. “Elephant seals,” in The Natural History of Año Neuvo , Le Boeuf, B. J. and Kaza, S., eds. (Pacific Grove, CA: Boxwood Press, 1985).Google Scholar
239. Le Boeuf, B. J. and Laws, R. M.. Elephant Seals: Population Ecology, Behavior and Physiology (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).Google Scholar
240. Darwin, , The Descent of Man (see note 1).Google Scholar
241. Ibid., p. 150.Google Scholar
242. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
243. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
244. Mayr, , “Emergence of evolutionary novelties,” (see note 167).Google Scholar
245. Corning, , “The co-operative gene” (see note 54).Google Scholar
246. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
247. Johnson, A. W. and Earle, T.. The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987).Google Scholar
248. Byrne, R. W. and Whiten, A., eds. Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes and Humans (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988).Google Scholar
249. Mellars, P.. “Major issues in the emergence of modern humans.” Current Anthropology , 1989, 30:349–385.Google Scholar
250. Mithen, S. J.. Thoughtful Foragers: A Study of Prehistoric Decision Making (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990).Google Scholar
251. Durham, , Coevolution (see note 183).Google Scholar
252. Jones, S., Martin, R. D., and Pilbeam, D. R.. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
253. Maryanski, A. and Turner, J. H.. The Social Cage: Human Nature and the Evolution of Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
254. Smith, E. A. and Winterhalder, B., eds. Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior (New York: Aldine Gruyter, 1992).Google Scholar
255. Gibson, R. and Ingold, T., eds. Tools, Language, and Cognition in Human Evolution (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
256. Quiatt, D. D. and Reynolds, V.. Primate Behaviour: Information, Social Knowledge, and the Evolution of Culture (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
257. Soltis, J., Boyd, R., and Richerson, P.. “Can group-functional behaviors evolve by cultural group selection?” Current Anthropology , 1995, 36:473–494.Google Scholar
258. Holloway, R. L.. “Evolution of the human brain,” in Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution , Lock, A. and Peters, C. R., eds. (Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, 1996).Google Scholar
259. Boehm, C.. “Emergency decisions, cultural-selection mechanics, and group selection.” Current Anthropology , 1996, 37:763–793.Google Scholar
260. Feldman, M. W. and Laland, K. N.. “Gene-culture coevolutionary theory.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution , 1996, 11:453–457.Google Scholar
261. Flinn, M. V.. “Culture and the evolution of social learning.” Evolution and Human Behavior , 1997, 18:23–67.Google Scholar
262. Durham, , Coevolution (see note 183).Google Scholar
263. Cavalli-Sforza, and Feldman, , Cultural Transmission and Evolution (see note 180).Google Scholar
264. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
265. Boyd, and Richerson, , Culture and the Evolutionary Process (see note 182).Google Scholar
266. Ghiselin, M. T.. “Book review: Coevolution: Genes, culture, human diversity.” Politics and the Life Sciences , 1993, 12:123–124.Google Scholar
267. Darwin, , The Descent of Man (see note 1).Google Scholar
268. Wilson, E. O., Sociobiology (see note 18).Google Scholar
269. Johanson, D. and Edey, M., Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind . (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981).Google Scholar
270. Leakey, R., The Origin of Human Kind (New York: Basic Books, 1994).Google Scholar
271. White, L. A., The Science of Culture: A Study of Man and Civilization (New York: Grove Press, 1949).Google Scholar
272. Coppens, Y. and Senut, B., Origine(s) de la Bipédie les Hominidés (Paris: Cahiers de Paléanthropologie, Centre National Recherche Scientifique, 1991).Google Scholar
273. Vrba, E. S. et al., (eds.), Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).Google Scholar
274. Dart, R., “The predatory transition from ape to man.” International Anthropological and Linguistic Review 1953, 1:201–219.Google Scholar
275. Washburn, S. L. and Lancaster, C. S., “The evolution of hunting,” Man the Hunter , Lee, R. B. and DeVore, I., eds. (Chicago, IL: Aldine Press, 1968), pp. 293–303.Google Scholar
276. Ardrey, R.. The Territorial Imperative (New York: Atheneum, 1966).Google Scholar
277. Thompson, D. F., personal communication.Google Scholar
278. Stanford, C. B., The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
279. Potts, R., Early Hominid Activities at Olduvai (Chicago, IL: Aldine Press, 1988).Google Scholar
280. Blumenshine, R. J., “Characterisitcs of an early hominid scavenging model.” Current Anthropology 1987, 28(4): 383–407.Google Scholar
281. Shipman, P., “Early hominid lifestyle: Hunting and gathering or foraging and scavenging.” in Animals and Archaeology , Clutton-Brock, J. and Grigson, C., eds. (Oxford, U.K.: B.A.R., 1983), pp. 31–49.Google Scholar
282. Zilman, A. L. and Tanner, N., “Gathering and the hominid adaptation,” in Female Hierarchies , Tiger, L. and Fowler, H., eds. (Chicago, IL: Beresford Books, 1978), pp. 163–194.Google Scholar
283. Zilman, and Tanner, , “Gathering and the hominid adaptation” (see note 282).Google Scholar
284. Lovejoy, C. O., “The origin of man,” Science 1981, 341–350.Google Scholar
285. Kruuk, H., The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1972).Google Scholar
286. Kortlandt, Adriaan, “On chimpanzee dormitories and early hominid home sites,” Current Anthropology , 1987, 33(4): 399–400.Google Scholar
287. Alexander, R. D.. Darwinism and Human Affairs (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1979).Google Scholar
288. Dart (provide name of publication for cross-reference) (see note 274).Google Scholar
289. Keith, A.. A New Theory of Human Evolution (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1947).Google Scholar
290. Ardrey, , The Territorial Imperative (see note 276).Google Scholar
291. Lorenz, L.. On Aggression , Wilson, M. K., trans. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, World, 1966).Google Scholar
292. Bigelow, R.. The Dawn Warriors: Man's Evolution towards Peace (Boston: Little Brown, 1969).Google Scholar
293. Otterbein, (please provide reference) Google Scholar
294. Alexander, , Darwinism and Human Affairs (see note 287).Google Scholar
295. Leakey, , The Origin of Human Kind (see note 270).Google Scholar
296. Tattersall, I.. The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know about Human Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).Google Scholar
297. Alexander. Darwinism and Human Affairs (see note 287).Google Scholar
298. Service, E. R.. Cultural Evolutionism: Theory in Practice (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971), p. 25.Google Scholar
299. Wilson, , “The sociogenesis of insect colonies” (see note 146).Google Scholar
300. Wilson, E. O., Sociobiology (see note 18).Google Scholar
301. Boehm, , “Emergency decisions” (see note 259).Google Scholar
302. Wilson, and Dugatkin, , “Group selection and assortative interactions” (see note 52).Google Scholar
303. Soltis, et al., “Can group-functional behaviors evolve by cultural group selection?” (see note 257).Google Scholar
304. Childe, V. G.. Man Makes Himself (New York: New American Library, 1951[1936]).Google Scholar
305. White, L. A.. “Energy and the Evolution of Culture.” American Anthropologist , 1943, 45:335–356.Google Scholar
306. White, , The Science of Culture (see note 271).Google Scholar
307. Cottrell, F.. Energy and Society (New York: McGraw Hill, 1953).Google Scholar
308. Odum, H. T.. Environment, Power and Society (London: Wiley, 1971).Google Scholar
309. Adams, R.. Energy and Structure (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975).Google Scholar
310. Adams, R.. The Eighth Day: Social Evolution as the Self-Organization of Energy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988).Google Scholar
311. James, S. R.. “Hominid use of fire in the lower and middle Pleistocene.” Current Anthropology , 1989, 30:1–26.Google Scholar
312. Leopold, C. A. and Ardrey, R.. “Toxic substances in plants and the food habits of early man.” Science , 1972, 176:512–514.Google Scholar
313. Stahl, A. B.. “Hominid dietary selection before fire.” Current Anthropology , 1984, 25:151–168.Google Scholar
314. Wrangham, R. W., Jones, J. H., Laden, G., Pilbeam, D., and Conklin-Brittain, N.. “The raw and the stolen: Cooking and the ecology of human origins.” Current Anthropology , 1999, 40(5):567–594.Google Scholar
315. Wrangham, R. W.. “Out of the pan, into the fire: How our ancestors' evolution depended on what they ate,” in Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Social Evolution , de Waal, F. B. M., ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), pp. 121–143.Google Scholar
316. Diamond, J.. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking Press, 2005).Google Scholar
317. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
318. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
319. Barkow, J., Cosmides, L., and Tooby, J.. The Adapted Mind (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
320. Flinn, , “Culture and the evolution of social learning” (see note 261).Google Scholar
321. Gould, S. J.. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin (New York: Harmony Books, 1996).Google Scholar
322. Williams, , Adaptation and Natural Selection , p. 273 (see note 15).Google Scholar
323. Corning, P. A.. “The evolution of politics,” in Handbook of Evolution , Wuketits, F. M. and Antweiler, C., eds. (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH and Co., 2004), pp. 191–252.Google Scholar
324. Tiger, L. and Fox, R.. The Imperial Animal (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971).Google Scholar
325. de Waal, , Chimpanzee Politics (see note 213).Google Scholar
326. de Waal, F.. Peacemaking among Primates (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
327. de Waal, F. B. M.. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
328. Harcourt, A. H. and de Waal, F. B. M., eds. Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
329. de Waal, F. B. M.. Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).Google Scholar
330. de Waal, . Peacemaking among Primates (see note 326).Google Scholar
331. de Waal, . Good Natured (see note 327).Google Scholar
332. de Waal, F. B. M.. “Cultural primatology comes of age.” Nature , 1999, 399:635–636.Google Scholar
333. de Waal, F. B. M.. Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Social Evolution (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001).Google Scholar
334. de Waal, F. B. M.. Our Inner Ape: A Leading Primatologist Explains Why We Are Who We Are (New York: Riverhead, 2005).Google Scholar
335. de Waal, F.. Primates and Philosophers (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
336. Conradt, L. and Roper, T. J.. “Group decision-making in animals.” Nature , 2003, 421:155–158.Google Scholar
337. Kummer, H.. Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons: A Field Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).Google Scholar
338. Kummer, H.. Primate Societies: Group Techniques of Ecological Adaptation (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971).Google Scholar
339. Wilson, E. O., Sociobiology (see note 18).Google Scholar
340. Lopez, B.. Of Wolves and Men (New York: Scribner, 1978).Google Scholar
341. Strum, S. C.. Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons (New York: Random House, 1987).Google Scholar
342. Dunbar, R. I. M.. Primate Social Systems (London: Croom Helm, 1988).Google Scholar
343. Wrangham, R. W., McGrew, W. C., de Waal, F. B. M., and Heltne, P., eds. Chimpanzee Cultures (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).Google Scholar
344. Boesch, C. and Tomasello, M.. “Chimpanzee and human cultures.” Current Anthropology , 1998, 39(5):591–614.Google Scholar
345. Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., and Boesch, C.. “Cultures in chimpanzees.” Nature , 1999, 399:682–685.Google Scholar
346. Van Schaik, C. P., Ancrenaz, M., Borgen, G., Galdikas, B., Knott, C. D., Singleton, I., Suzuki, A., Utami, S. S., and Merrill, M.. “Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture.” Science , 2003, 299:102–105.Google Scholar
347. Boehm, , “Emergency decisions” (see note 259).Google Scholar
348. Boehm, C.. “Impact of the human egalitarian syndrome on Darwinian selection mechanics.” The American Naturalist , 1997, 150:5100–5121.Google Scholar
349. Boehm, C.. Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
350. Knauft, B. M.. “Violence and sociality in human evolution.” Current Anthropology , 1991, 32(4):391–409.Google Scholar
351. de Waal, , Good Natured , pp. 9, 102 (see note 327).Google Scholar
352. Corning, , Synergism Hypothesis (see note 45).Google Scholar
353. Masters, , The Nature of Politics (see note 215).Google Scholar
354. Grady, M. F. and McGuire, M. T.. “The nature of constitutions.” journal of Bioeconomics , 1999, 1:227–240.Google Scholar
355. Rubin, P. H.. Darwinian Politics: The Evolutionary Origins of Freedom (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
356. Corning, P. A.. “Fair shares: Beyond capitalism and socialism, or the biological basis of social justice.” Politics and the Life Sciences , 2003, 22:12–32.Google Scholar
357. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
358. Polanyi, K.. The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001/1944).Google Scholar
359. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
360. Ibid. Google Scholar
361. de Lamarck, J. B.. Zoological Philosophy , translated by Elliot, H.. (New York: Hafner, 1963 [1809]).Google Scholar
362. Spencer, H.. “The Development Hypothesis,” in Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative , (New York: Appleton, 1892 [1852]).Google Scholar
363. Prigogine, I.. From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Science (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1980).Google Scholar
364. Teilhard de Chardin, P.. The Phenomenon of Man (New York: Harper & Row, 1959).Google Scholar
365. Wright, R.. Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny (New York: Pantheon Books, 2000).Google Scholar
366. Modelski, G.. Long Cycles in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1987).Google Scholar
367. Devezas, T. and Modelski, G.. “Power law behavior and world system evolution: A millennial learning process.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change , 2003, 70:819–859.Google Scholar
368. Corning, , Nature's Magic (see note 46).Google Scholar
369. Corning, , Holistic Darwinism (see note 47).Google Scholar
370. Corning, P. A.. “Synergy goes to war: A bioeconomic theory of collective violence.” Journal of Bioeconomics , 2007, 9:109–144.Google Scholar