Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-dfsvx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T15:35:00.105Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Biopolitical science

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Larry Arnhart*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115 larnhart@niu.edu
Get access

Abstract

This article develops a theoretical framework for biopolitical science as a science of political animals. This science moves through three levels of deep political history: the universal political history of the species, the cultural political history of the group, and the individual political history of animals in the group. To illustrate the particular application of biopolitical science, this essay shows how this science would help us to understand Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863.

Type
Research Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Alford, John R. and Hibbing, John R., “The origin of politics: An evolutionary theory of political behavior,” Perspectives on Politics 2004, 2: 707723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.Arnhart, Larry, “The new Darwinian naturalism in political theory,” American Political Science Review 1995, 89: 389400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3.Arnhart, Larry, Darwinian Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).Google Scholar
4.Blank, Robert and Hines, Samuel, Biology and Political Science (London: Routledge, 2001).Google Scholar
5.Corning, Peter, The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution (New York: McGraw Hill, 1983).Google Scholar
6.Corning, Peter, Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics, and the Bioeconomics of Evolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7.Johnson, Gary R., “The evolutionary origins of government and politics,” in Human Nature and Politics, Somit, Albert and Peterson, Steven A., eds. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1995), pp. 243305.Google Scholar
8.Masters, Roger D., The Nature of Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
9.Masters, Roger D., Beyond Relativism: Science and Human Values (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).Google Scholar
10.Somit, Albert and Peterson, Steven A., The Failure of Democratic Nation Building: Ideology Meets Evolution (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).Google Scholar
11.Thayer, Bradley A., Darwin and International Relations: On the Evolutionary Origins of War and Ethnic Conflict (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004).Google Scholar
12.Wilson, James Q., The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993).Google Scholar
13.Orren, Karen and Skowronek, Stephen, The Search for American Political Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Pierson, Paul, Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).Google Scholar
15.Christian, David, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16.Mansbridge, Jane, ed., Beyond Self-Interest (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).Google Scholar
17.Ostrom, Elinor, “Collective action and the evolution of social norms,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 2000, 14(3): 137158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Ostrom, Elinor, “Policies that crowd out reciprocity and collective action,” in Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life, Gintis, Herbert, Bowles, Samuel, Boyd, Robert, and Fehr, Ernst, eds. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), pp. 253275.Google Scholar
19.Hanley, Ryan Patrick, “Political science and political understanding: Isaiah Berlin on the nature of political inquiry,” American Political Science Review 2004, 98: 327339.Google Scholar
20.Oakeshott, Michael, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1991).Google Scholar
21.Ricci, David, The Tragedy of Political Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).Google Scholar
22.Thiele, Leslie Paul, The Heart of Judgment: Practical Wisdom, Neuroscience, and Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
23.Billig, Michael, “Political rhetoric,” in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, Sears, David O., Huddy, Leonie, and Jervis, Robert, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 222250.Google Scholar
24.Marcus, George, Russell Neuman, W., and MacKuen, Michael, Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).Google Scholar
25.Marcus, George, The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in Democratic Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
26.Marcus, George, “The psychology of emotion and politics,” in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, Sears, David O., Huddy, Leonie, and Jervis, Robert, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 182191.Google Scholar
27.Russell Neuman, W., Marcus, George E., Crigler, Ann N., and MacKuen, Michael, eds., The Affect Effect: Dynamics of Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).Google Scholar
28.Grabe, Maria Elizabeth and Bucy, Erik Page, Image Bite Politics: News and the Visual Framing of Elections (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).Google Scholar
29.Jelen, Ted G. and Wilcox, Clyde, eds., Religion and Politics in Comparative Perspective: The One, the Pew, and the Many (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Norris, Pippa and Inglehart, Ronald, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31.Wilson, David Sloan, Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion, and the Nature of Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32.Wilson, David Sloan, “Human Groups as Adaptive Units: Toward a Permanent Consensus,” in The Innate Mind, vol. 2: Culture and Cognition, Carruthers, Peter, Laurence, Stephen, and Stich, Stephen, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 7890.Google Scholar
33.Mansfield, Harvey, Manliness (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
34.Mansfield, Harvey, “How to understand politics,” First Things August/September 2007, 175: 4147.Google Scholar
35.Arnhart, Larry, “Darwinian liberal education,” Academic Questions Fall 2006, 19: 618.Google Scholar
36.Ricci, .Google Scholar
37.Wilson, Edward O., Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (New York: Knopf, 1998).Google Scholar
38.Boehm, Christopher, Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
39.Maryanski, Alexandra and Turner, Jonathan H., The Social Cage: Human Nature and the Evolution of Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
40.Tooby, John and DeVore, Irven, “The reconstruction of hominid behavioral evolution through strategic modeling,” in The Evolution of Human Behavior: Primate Models, Kinzey, Warren G., ed. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 183237.Google Scholar
41.Johnson, .Google Scholar
42.Dugatkin, Lee Alan, Cooperation Among Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).Google Scholar
43.Nowak, Martin A., Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Fife (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006).Google Scholar
44.Nowak, Martin A., “Five rules for the evolution of cooperation,” Science December 8, 2006, 314: 15601563.Google Scholar
45.Brown, Donald, Human Universals (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991).Google Scholar
46.Boehm, .Google Scholar
47.Masters, , 1989.Google Scholar
48.Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Gene, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
49.Hamilton, William D., Narrow Roads of Gene Land: The Collected Papers of W. D. Hamilton (Oxford: W. H. Freeman, 1995).Google Scholar
50.Corning, , 1983, pp. 8488, 103–120, 254–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Dugatkin, , pp. 3134.Google Scholar
52.Axelrod, Robert, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).Google Scholar
53.Trivers, Robert, “The evolution of reciprocal altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology 1971, 46: 3557.Google Scholar
54.Alexander, Richard, The Biology of Moral Systems (Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987).Google Scholar
55.Sigmund, Karl, The Calculus of Selfishness (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).Google Scholar
56.Gintis, Herbert, Bowles, Samuel, Boyd, Robert, and Fehr, Ernest, “Moral sentiments and material interests: Origins, evidence, and consequences,” in Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Fife, Gintis, Herbert, Bowles, Samuel, Boyd, Robert, and Fehr, Ernst, eds. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), pp. 340.Google Scholar
57.Henrich, Natalie and Henrich, Joseph, Why Humans Cooperate: A Cultural and Evolutionary Explanation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).Google Scholar
58.Fehr, Ernst and Fischbacher, Urs, “Third party sanction and social norms,” Evolution and Human Behavior 2004, 25: 6387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59.Fehr, Ernst and Gachter, S., “Altruistic punishment in humans,” Nature 2002, 415: 137140.Google Scholar
60.Sigmund, .Google Scholar
61.Henrich, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, Bowles, Samuel, Camerer, Colin, Fehr, Ernst, and Gintis, Herbert, eds., Foundations of Human Sociality: Economic Experiments and Ethnographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-Scale Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62.Arnhart, , 1998.Google Scholar
63.Hauser, Marc, Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong (New York: HarperCollins, 2006).Google Scholar
64.Darwin, Charles, The Descent of Man, 2nd ed. (London: Penguin Books, 2004), pp. 119172, 679–682.Google Scholar
65.Darwin, Charles, Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836–1844, Barrett, Paul H., Gautrey, Peter J., Herbert, Sandra, Kohn, David, and Smith, Sydney, eds. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 617629.Google Scholar
66.Berreby, David, Us and Them: Understanding Your Tribal Mind (New York: Little, Brown, 2005).Google Scholar
67.Williams, George C., Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966).Google Scholar
68.Williams, George C., Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
69.Sober, Elliott and Wilson, David Sloan, Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
70.Wilson, , 2006.Google Scholar
71.Wilson, David Sloan, Evolution for Everyone: How Darwin's Theory Can Change the Way We Think About Our Lives (New York: Delacorte Press, 2007).Google Scholar
72.Wilson, David Sloan and Wilson, Edward O., “Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology,” The Quarterly Review of Biology 2007, 82: 327348.Google Scholar
73.Boehm, .Google Scholar
74.Goodall, Jane, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).Google Scholar
75.Harcourt, Alexander H. and de Waal, Frans, eds., Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
76.Ludwig, Arnold, King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002).Google Scholar
77.Mazur, Allan, Biosociology of Dominance and Deference (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005).Google Scholar
78.de Waal, Frans, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes (New York: Harper & Row, 1982).Google Scholar
79.de Waal, Frans, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
80.De Waal, , 1996, pp. 125132.Google Scholar
81.Boehm, .Google Scholar
82.Rustow, Alexander, Freedom and Domination: A Historical Critique of Civilization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980).Google Scholar
83.Scott, James C., The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009).Google Scholar
84.Machiavelli, Niccolo, Discourses on Livy, trans. Mansfield, Harvey and Tarcov, Nathan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 1.45, 1.16.Google Scholar
85.Kano, Takayoshi, The Last Ape: Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
86.Parker, Ian, “Swingers,” The New Yorker, July 30, 2007, pp. 4861.Google Scholar
87.Sandin, Jo, Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy (Milwaukee: Zoological Society of Milwaukee and the Foundation for Wildlife Conservation, 2007).Google Scholar
88.de Waal, Frans and Lanting, Frans, Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).Google Scholar
89.Wrangham, Richard W. and Peterson, Dale, Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996).Google Scholar
90.de Waal, Frans, Our Inner Ape (New York: Penguin Books, 2005).Google Scholar
91.Madsen, Douglas, “Serotonin and social rank among human males,” in The Neurotransmitter Revolution: Serotonin, Social Behavior, and the Law, Masters, Roger D. and McGuire, Michael T., eds. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994), pp. 146158.Google Scholar
92.Mazur, Allan and Booth, Alan, “Testosterone and dominance in men,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1998, 21: 353363.Google Scholar
93.Dabbs, James M. and Dabbs, Mary Godwin, Heroes, Rogues, and Lovers: Testosterone and Behavior (New York: McGraw Hill, 2000).Google Scholar
94.Ellison, Peter T., “Social relationships and reproductive ecology,” in Endocrinology of Social Relationships, Ellison, Peter T. and Gray, Peter B., eds. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 5473.Google Scholar
95.Marmot, Michael, The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004).Google Scholar
96.Lincoln, Abraham, The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols., Basler, Roy P., ed., (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), vol. 1, pp. 8, 108–115.Google Scholar
97.Herndon, William H., Herndon's Life of Lincoln (New York: Da Capo Press, 1983), pp. 172, 422423.Google Scholar
98.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, p. 271.Google Scholar
99.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, pp. 263–64.Google Scholar
100.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, p. 409.Google Scholar
101.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, p. 532.Google Scholar
102.Boehm, , p. 105.Google Scholar
103.Arnhart, , 1998, pp. 189208.Google Scholar
104.Desmond, Adrian and Moore, James, Darwin's Sacred Cause: How a Hatred of Slavery Shaped Darwin's Views on Human Evolution (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009).Google Scholar
105.Gopnik, Adam, Angels and Ages: A Short Book about Darwin, Lincoln, and Modern Life (New York: Knopf, 2009).Google Scholar
106.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, p. 500.Google Scholar
107.Diamond, Larry, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 2.Google Scholar
108.Jablonka, Eva and Lamb, Marion J., Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), p. 160.Google Scholar
109.McGrew, William, The Cultural Chimpanzee: Reflections on Cultural Primatology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110.Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Turin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., and Boesch, C., “Cultures in chimpanzees,” Nature 1999, 399: 682685.Google Scholar
111.Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., and Boesch, C., “Charting cultural variants in chimpanzees,” Behaviour 2001, 138: 14811516.Google Scholar
112.Whiten, Andrew, “The identification and differentiation of culture in chimpanzees and other animals from natural history to diffusion experiments,” in The Question of Animal Culture, Laland, Kevin N. and Galef, Bennett G., eds. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 99124.Google Scholar
113.Goodall, Jane, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986).Google Scholar
114.Darwin, , 2004, pp. 121122, 158, 163, 167, 169, 688–689.Google Scholar
115.Richerson, Peter J. and Boyd, Robert, Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).Google Scholar
116.Henrich, Joseph and McElreath, Richard, “Dual-inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution,” in The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Dunbar, R. I. M. and Barrett, Louise, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 555570.Google Scholar
117.Deacon, Terence W., The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain (New York: Norton, 1997).Google Scholar
118.Hill, Kim, “Animal ‘culture’?” in The Question of Animal Culture, Laland, Kevin N. and Galef, Bennett G., eds. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 269287.Google Scholar
119.Jablonka, and Lamb, .Google Scholar
120.Aristotle, History of Animals, 488a7–14; Politics, 1253a1–18.Google Scholar
121.Arnhart, Larry, “Aristotle, chimpanzees, and other political animals,” Social Science Information 1990, 29: 479559.Google Scholar
122.Arnhart, Larry, “The Darwinian biology of Aristotle's political animals,” American Journal of Political Science 1994, 38: 464485.Google Scholar
123.Gadau, Jurgen and Fewell, Jennifer, eds., Organization of Insect Societies: From Genome to Sociocomplexity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009).Google Scholar
124.Holldobler, Bert and Wilson, Edward O., The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies (New York: Norton, 2009).Google Scholar
125.Seeley, Thomas D., The Wisdom of the Hive: The Social Physiology of Honey Bee Colonies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).Google Scholar
126.Henrich, and Henrich, .Google Scholar
127.Turchin, Peter, War and Peace and War: The Rise and Fall of Empires (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).Google Scholar
128.Lutz, Donald S., The Origins of American Constitutionalism (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).Google Scholar
129.Nelson, Eric, The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010).Google Scholar
130.Finer, Samuel E., The History of Government, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).Google Scholar
131.Smail, Daniel Lord, On Deep History and the Brain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).Google Scholar
132.Christian, .Google Scholar
133.Chaisson, Eric, Cosmic Evolution: The Rise of Complexity in Nature (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
134.Morton, Oliver, Eating the Sun: How Plants Power the Planet (New York: HarperCollins, 2008).Google Scholar
135.John Odling-Smee, F., Laland, Kevin N., and Feldman, Marcus W., Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
136.Kristen Urban, J., “Competitive exclusion: A biological model applied to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,” Politics and the Life Sciences 2009, 28(2): 6983.Google Scholar
137.Herndon, , p. 354.Google Scholar
138.Chambers, Robert, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Secord, James A., ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).Google Scholar
139.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, pp. 437442; vol. 3, pp. 356–363, 471–482; vol. 6, pp. 151–152.Google Scholar
140.Miller, Eugene, “Democratic statecraft and technological advance: Abraham Lincoln's reflections on ‘discoveries and inventions,”’ The Review of Politics, 2001, 63(3): 485515.Google Scholar
141.Arnhart, Larry, “Abraham Lincoln's biblical liberalism,” The St. John's Review, Summer 1984, 36: 2539.Google Scholar
142.Lenski, Gerhard, Ecological-Evolutionary Theory (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2005).Google Scholar
143.Lewellen, Ted C., Political Anthropology: An Introduction, 3rd ed. (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2003).Google Scholar
144.Scarre, Chris, ed., The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies, 2nd ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 2009).Google Scholar
145.Finer, , Vol. 1, pp. 3487.Google Scholar
146.Bendix, Reinhard, Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).Google Scholar
147.Adamson Hoebel, E., The Law of Primitive Man: A Study in Comparative Legal Dynamics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954).Google Scholar
148.Lee, Richard B., The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 343350, 457–461.Google Scholar
149.Johnson, Allen W. and Earle, Timothy, The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State, 2nd ed. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), pp. 5489.Google Scholar
150.Kelly, Robert L., The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995), pp. 295297.Google Scholar
151.Shultziner, Doron, Stevens, Thomas, Stevens, Martin, Stewart, Brian A., Hannagan, Rebecca J., and Saltini-Semerari, Giulia, “The causes and scope of political egalitarianism during the last glacial: A multi-disciplinary perspective,” Biology & Philosophy 2010, 25(3): 319346.Google Scholar
152.Lewellen, .Google Scholar
153.Masters, , 1989.Google Scholar
154.Masters, Roger, Machiavelli, Leonardo, and the Science of Power (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996).Google Scholar
155.Boehm, .Google Scholar
156.Maryanski, and Turner, .Google Scholar
157.Grady, Mark F. and McGuire, Michael T., “The nature of constitutions,” Journal of Bioeconomics 1999, 1: 227240.Google Scholar
158.Rubin, Paul, Darwinian Politics: The Evolutionary Origin of Freedom (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
159.Finer, , Vol. 1, pp. 8794.Google Scholar
160.Elazar, Daniel J., Covenant and Polity in Biblical Israel (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1995).Google Scholar
161.Hazony, Yoran, “Does the Bible have a political teaching?” Hebraic Political Studies Winter 2006, 1: 137161.Google Scholar
162.Nelson, .Google Scholar
163.Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967).Google Scholar
164.Rahe, Paul, Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).Google Scholar
165.Lutz, Donald S., Principles of Constitutional Design (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 26.Google Scholar
166.Thach, Charles C., The Creation of the Presidency, 1775–1789 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).Google Scholar
167.Hamilton, Alexander, Madison, James, and Jay, John, The Federalist, Cooke, Jacob E., ed. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961), p. 65.Google Scholar
168.Bailyn, Bernard, ed., The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification, 2 vols. (New York: Library of America, 1993), vol. 1, pp. 53, 78, 84, 321, 409–410; vol. 2, pp. 760.Google Scholar
169.Adams, John, The Works of John Adams, Adams, Charles Francis, ed., 10 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1851), vol. 4, pp. 285286, 379–400; vol. 5, pp. 90; vol. 6, pp. 165–166.Google Scholar
170.Michels, Robert, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1962).Google Scholar
171.Prewitt, Kenneth and Stone, Alan, The Ruling Elites: Elite Theory, Power, and American Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).Google Scholar
172.Somit, Albert and Wildenmann, Rudolf, eds., Hierarchy and Democracy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1991).Google Scholar
173.Lincoln, , Vol. 1, p. 114.Google Scholar
174.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, pp. 247283, 398–410; vol. 3, pp. 522–550.Google Scholar
175.Goodwin, Doris Kearns, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005).Google Scholar
176.Guelzo, Allen C., Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004).Google Scholar
177.Lincoln, , Vol. 6, p. 30.Google Scholar
178.Lincoln, , Vol. 2, pp. 245, 265–271; vol. 4, p. 17.Google Scholar
179.Lincoln, , Vol. 3, p. 315.Google Scholar
180.Fischer, David H., Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
181.Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth and Genovese, Eugene D., The Mind of the Master Class: History and Faith in the Southern Slaveholders' Worldview (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).Google Scholar
182.Noll, Mark, The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).Google Scholar
183.Lincoln, , Vol. 8, p. 333.Google Scholar
184.Arnhart, , 1984.Google Scholar
185.Fornieri, Joseph, Abraham Lincoln's Political Faith (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003).Google Scholar
186.Noll, , p. 50.Google Scholar
187.Bowles, Samuel, “Did warfare among hunter-gatherers affect the evolution of human social behaviors?” Science June 5, 2009, 324: 12931298.Google Scholar
188.Gat, Azar, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).Google Scholar
189.Potts, Malcolm and Hayden, Thomas, Sex and War: How Biology Explains Warfare and Terrorism and Offers a Path to a Safer World (Dallas: Benbella Books, 2008).Google Scholar
190.Rosen, Stephen Peter, War and Human Nature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).Google Scholar
191.Sagarin, Raphael D. and Taylor, Terence, eds., Natural Security: A Darwinian Approach to a Dangerous World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).Google Scholar
192.Churchill, Winston S., Marlborough: His Life and Times, 2 vols. (London: George G. Harrap, 1947), Vol. 2, p. 381.Google Scholar
193.Berlin, Isaiah, The Sense of Reality (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1996).Google Scholar
194.Oakeshott, .Google Scholar
195.Strauss, Leo, “Epilogue,” in Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics, Storing, Herbert, ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), pp. 305327.Google Scholar
196.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1140a241145a11.Google Scholar
197.Goodall, .Google Scholar
198.Sandin, .Google Scholar
199.De Waal, , 1982.Google Scholar
200.De Waal, , 1996.Google Scholar
201.De Waal, and Lanting, .Google Scholar
202.Goodall, , p. 415.Google Scholar
203.Goodall, , p. 568.Google Scholar
204.Sandin, , p. 51.Google Scholar
205.Aristotle, History of Animals, 502a16–b27, 611a11–618a30; Parts of Animals, 648a6–13, 689b1–35; Metaphysics, 980a27–b25; Nicomachean Ethics, 1141a22–29.Google Scholar
206.Krannawitter, Thomas L., Vindicating Lincoln: Defending the Politics of Our Greatest President (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008).Google Scholar
207.DiLorenzo, Thomas, The Real Abraham Lincoln, His Agenda, and an Unnecessary War (Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing, 2003).Google Scholar
208.DiLorenzo, Thomas, Lincoln Unmasked: What You're Not Supposed to Know About Dishonest Abe (New York: Crown Forum, 2006).Google Scholar
209.Fornieri, Joseph, “Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation: A model of prudent leadership,” in Tempered Strength: Studies in the Nature and Scope of Prudential Leadership, Fishman, Ethan, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2002), pp. 125150.Google Scholar
210.Guelzo, , 2004.Google Scholar
211.Guelzo, Allen C., “Prudence, politics, and the proclamation,” First Principles Series, no. 14, (Washington, DC: The Heritage Foundation, 2007).Google Scholar
212.Uyl, Douglas Den, The Virtue of Prudence (New York: Peter Lang, 1991).Google Scholar
213.Hammond, Kenneth R., Human Judgment and Social Policy: Irreducible Uncertainty, Inevitable Error, Unavoidable Injustice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
214.Thiele, .Google Scholar
215.Arnhart, Larry, Aristotle on Political Reasoning: A Commentary on the “Rhetoric” (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981).Google Scholar
216.Arnhart, , 1998.Google Scholar
217.Haidt, Jonathan, “The new synthesis in moral psychology,” Science 2007, 316: 9981001.Google Scholar
218.Hauser, , 2006.Google Scholar
219.Haidt, Jonathan, “The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment,” Psychological Review 2001, 108: 814834.Google Scholar
220.Haidt, Jonathan, “The moral emotions,” in Handbook of Affective Sciences, Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. R., and Goldsmith, H. H., eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 852870.Google Scholar
221.Greene, Joshua D., “The cognitive neuroscience of moral judgment,” in The Cognitive Neurosciences, 4th ed., Gazzaniga, Michael S., ed. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009), pp. 987999.Google Scholar
222.Wilson, , 1998, p. 266.Google Scholar
223.Wilson, , 1998, pp. 55, 67–68, 70–71, 83–86, 109, 162–65, 167, 172–73, 240, 255, 263, 266, 276–277, 297–298.Google Scholar
224.Arnhart, Larry, Darwinian Conservatism: A Disputed Question, Blanchard, Kenneth C. Jr., ed. (Exerter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2009), pp. 104111.Google Scholar
225.Blitz, David, Emergent Evolution (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992).Google Scholar
226.Clayton, Philip, Mind and Emergence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).Google Scholar
227.Morowitz, Harold, The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
228.Corning, , 2005.Google Scholar
229.Passingham, Richard E., The Frontal Lobes and Voluntary Action (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
230.Deacon, , 1997.Google Scholar
231.Striedter, Georg F., Principles of Brain Evolution (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2005).Google Scholar
232.Jablonka, and Lamb, .Google Scholar
233.Schwartz, Jeffrey M. and Begley, Sharon, The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).Google Scholar
234.Doidge, Normon, The Brain that Changes Itself (New York: Viking, 2007).Google Scholar
235.Arnhart, Larry, “The behavioral sciences are historical sciences of emergent complexity,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences February 2007, 30: 1819.Google Scholar
236.Mayr, Ernst, What Makes Biology Unique? Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).Google Scholar
237.Mirowski, Philip, More Heat Than Light: Economics as Social Physics, Physics as Nature's Economics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).Google Scholar
238.Hodgson, Geoffrey M., How Economics Forgot History: The Problem of Historical Specificity in Social Science (London: Routledge, 2001).Google Scholar
239.Blalock, Hubert M. Jr., Basic Dilemmas in the Social Sciences (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984).Google Scholar
240.Gintis, , Bowles, , Boyd, , and Fehr, .Google Scholar
241.Henrich, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, Bowles, Samuel, Camerer, Colin F., Fehr, Ernst, Gintis, Herbert, and McElreath, Richard, “Overview and synthesis,” in Foundations of Human Sociality: Economic Experiments and Ethnographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-Scale Societies, Henrich, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, Bowles, Samuel, Camerer, Colin, Fehr, Ernst, and Gintis, Herbert, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 854.Google Scholar
242.Henrich, Joseph, et al., “Markets, religion, community size, and the evolution of fairness and punishment,” Science March 19, 2010, 327: 14801485.Google Scholar